Digitized  by  tlie  Internet  Arcliive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.archive.org/details/fertilityoflandOOrobeiala 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  lac'  date  stamped  below 


/ ,  oc 


"''■       ^^  CALIFORNIA 


LCo    /4    ,, 


THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE 
LAND 


A    SUMMARY    SKETCH    OF    THE    RELATIONSHIP   OF 

FARM -PRACTICE    TO   THE    MAINTAINING   AND 

INCREASING   OF   THE    PRODUCTIVITY 

OF   THE   SOIL. 


2LZ,I  37 


ISAAC    PHILLIPS    POBERTS 

Director  and  Bean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the 

Cornell  University  -^ 


TWELFTH  EDITION 


THE    MACMILLAN     COMPANY 

LONDON:    MAOiHLLAN   &   CO.,  Ltd. 
1911 

All  rights  reserved 


2- -^137 


*90PTRIOHT.    1897 

Bv  1.  p.  ROBERTS 

Set  up  and  electrotyped  April,  1897. 
kepnnt«d  mth  corrections  February,  1898,  .July,  1899. 
A^ril,  J900.  JuLv,  1901.  January.  19U3.  February.  1MV4,  M/ty.  1905 
June,  190C,  fVtobor.  1907.  July,  19<kJ.  Jsnu.nrv.  1911 


S^ount   JOIraeaiit    l?tt99 

J.    Hf>KA<  E    Mt'FAKl.ANO   li>Ml'AST 
HaKKISBCHO    •    rKNNSVLVA.NlA 


S  5  9  1 


PREFACE   BY  THE   EDITOR. 

If  a  man  has  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
as  a  teacher  of  agriculture  and  an  experimenter,  and 
has  been  a  successful  farmer  at  the  same  time,  and 
has  had  the  advantage  of  much  travel,  his  opinions 
upon  farm  methods  should  be  invaluable  to  liis  fel- 
lows. If,  in  addition  to  all  this,  he  has  had  a  philo- 
sophic turn  of  mind,  and  has  persistently  inquired  into 
the  reasons  and  results  of  all  that  he  has  seen,  it 
would  seem  to  be  nothing  less  than  a  public  misfor- 
tune if  he  should  fail  to  leave  some  of  his  wisdom  in 
permanent  and  consecutive  form.  At  any  rate,  this 
has  been  my  chief  thought  in  persuading  Professor 
Roberts  to  write  this  book.  The  book  is,  therefore, 
a  personal  one.  It  sets  forth  the  author's  philosophy 
of  the  means  of  maintaining  the  productivity  of  the 
land  ;  and  since  the  productive  power  of  the  laiui  is 
the  first  and  fundamental  consideration  in  farming, 
it  must  follow  that  this  book  comes  as  near  to  being 
a  treatise  on  agriculture  as  any  single  volume  can 
be.  It  appeals  to  me  with  especial  force,  because  it 
so    M-ell    combines   the    current    ideals   of    scieiK-e    witl 

(v) 


vi  Preface. 

the  philosopliy  ()f  farm -practice.  It  is  the  ripened 
judgment  of  the  wisest  farmer  whom  I  have  known. 
I  confess  that  I  have  looked  with  some  appre- 
hension upon  the  rapid  diffusion  of  experimental 
science  of  recent  years,  for  there  is  danger  that  this 
knowledge  may  overshadow  the  importance  of  accus- 
tomed farm -practice,  and  lead  the  farmer  to  demand 
specific  rules  for  each  j)erplexity  and  to  depend  upon 
the  Experiment  Station  and  the  teacher  for  his  fann- 
ing. The  most  important  mission  of  the  Experiment 
Station,  at  the  present  time,  is  to  lead  the  farmer  to 
understand  more  fully  the  underlying  reasons  for  the 
common  things  which  he  does.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  very  few  farmers  really  know  the  philosophy 
of  plowing.  The  Experiment  Station  can,  for  the 
most  part,  work  out  only  general  principles  and 
methods,  and  the  farmer  must  modify  and  apply 
them  as  best  he  can  :  foi'  each  farm  is  a  lo<;al 
problem,  and  each  farmer  must  be  an  experimenter. 
When  this  (conception  of  the  Experiment  Station 
work  is  fully  apprehended,  the  farmer  should  become 
more  self-dependent  ;  and  the  necessity  of  working 
out  a  philosophy  of  his  own,  and  of  giving  more 
careful  attention  to  every  detail  of  the  tilling  of  the 
land  and  the  husbanding  of  his  home  resources,  will 
become  more  and  more  apparent.  The  farmer  must 
approach   the    problem  of    nniintaining  the   productive- 


Preface.  vii 

ness  of  his  land  from  several  directions,  for  the 
subject  is  a  large  one.  He  can  use  King's  book 
on  "  The  Soil"  in  considering  it  from  the  side 
of  rational  science,  and  the  present  volume  will  aid 
nim   in    approaching  it  from   the  farm  side. 

There  are  those  who  look  for  the  time  when 
agriculture  shall  be  reduced  to  a  rigid  science,  which 
shall  be  governed  by  a  well-defined  series  of  rules 
and  precepts.  But  that  time  will  never  come  !  Hap- 
pily, there  is  one  vocation  in  which  men  engage 
which  can  never  be  bounded  by  methods  or  prece- 
dents, one  occupation  which  is  as  elastic  and  un- 
trammeled  and  unconventional  as  the  blowing  of  the 
wind,  the  falling  of  the  rain,  and  the  singing  of  the 
birds  !  The  fact  is  that  there  is  no  science  of  agri- 
culture. The  occupation  is  a  business  and  an  art 
founded  upon  the  inter -play  of  many  sciences,  of 
which  chemistry,  botany,  physiology,  physics  and  cli- 
matology are  chief ;  and  these  and  all  the  business 
methods  are  coordinated  by  good  judgment  and  skilful 
management.  There  can  be  no  text -book  of  agricul- 
ture, as  'there  can  be  of  botany  or  physics.  Many  of 
the  so-called  manuals  of  agriculture  are  really  agri- 
cultural chemistries  ;  they  treat  only  one  subject  out 
of  the  score  or  more  which  may  be  considered  to  be 
fundamental.  Chemical  analysis  —  although  of  the 
greatest    value    in    givey    instances — cannot    tell   what 


Tiii  Preface. 

the   land  will   produce  :   it  can   only  tell  what   it  con- 
tains. 

Farm -practice,  therefore,  is  not  the  less  important 
because  we  now  have  so  much  new  light  from  sci- 
ence. It  is  a  common  saying  that  farmers  are  adher- 
ing too  closely  to  the  ways  of  their  fathers,  and  the 
statement  is  undoubtedly  true ;  and  yet  it  must  be 
remembered  that  we  need  not  so  much  a  revolution 
of  farm  -  practice  as  we  do  an  improvement  of  it. 
There  is  danger  that  in  the  bewilderment  of  the  mul- 
titude of  new  facts,  we  forget  fundamental  reasons 
and  the  importance  of  understanding  the  common 
things.  The  farmer  should  be  a  philosopher.  I  like 
to  think  of  him  as  having  been  so  thorough  and 
timely  and  resourceful  with  his  work,  that  he  can  sit 
on  the  fence  at  least  one  day  in  the  week  and  enjoy 
the  fun  of  seeing  things  grow. 

L.  H.  BAILEY. 

Cornell  Uxivbrsitv, 
ITBACA,  N.  Y..  March  1,  1»7. 


CONTENTS. 


A    CttAT    WITH    THE    YoUNG    FARMER 


PAOXS 

1-8 


CHAPTER    I. 

An  Ikventory  of"  the  Land        ......       9-33 

Definitions  of  fcrtilitA-  and  plant-food  — Response  to  till- 
age—Complexity of    the    problem. 

The  native  plant-food  in  the  soil.  Analyses  of  rep- 
resentative soils— Availability  of  plant-food  — Valuation  of 
the  native  plant-foods— Leaching        .  .  ...       11-20 

The  food  required  bv  plants.  Constituents  of  a 
wheat  crop  — The  ash  of  plants— Value  of  soil  analyses- 
Composition  of  a  cotton  crop  — Orchards  — Maize  and  other 
cereals 20-29 

Extraneous  sources  of  plant-food.  Insolubility  of 
soil  materials  —  Nitrogen  in  rainfall  —  Barn  manures- 
Clovers— Mixed  husbandrv  — Causes  of  small  vields     .  .       29-.'i'< 


CHAPTER    n. 


Th%  Evolution  of  the  Plow 34-60 

Importance  of  the  subject— Definitions. 

Development  of  the  plow  in  the  old  world.  Plow 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  — East  Indian  plow  — Egyptian 
plow  — Early  French  and  Dutch  plows  — English  inven- 
lions  — .Jethro  Tull's  i<leas  — Scotch  plows  — The  English 
idea  of  plowing 34-43 


Confpnts. 


DXVKLOPMENT     OF     THF.      PLOW      IN     AMERICA.         An     Parlv 

Yankee  plow— Thomas  Jefferson  — Evolution  of  the  cast 
iron  plow  — The  American  idea  of  plowing— Interchange 
able    parts  — Webster's    and    Burrell's    plows  — The    subsoil 

plow     ....  44-.i2 

Prairie  plows.  The  problem  on  the  prairies— Prairie 
breakers  — The  glass  plow    .......       r)2-54 

DEVELOPMBa«T      OF     rONTEMPORANEOlH       PLOWS.         Chilled 

plows  — Gang-plows  — The  modern  light  plows  — The  impor- 
tance of   the   plow         ........       .i4-4>f) 

CHAPTER    III. 

.Tilling  the  Land 61-107 

Tilling  is  the  fundamental  labor— The  work  of   Tull. 

General  remarks  on  plowing.  Why  do  we  plowf- 
Pulverizing  the  soil  — The  character  of  the  furrow— Sur 
face  tillage  influenced  by  plowing— Sowing  without  plow- 
ing—More than  one  plowing  .sometimes   necessary  62-72 

Some  specific  results  of  plowixcs.  Effect  on  soil 
wot«/«ri»  — Puddling  and  percolation  — Subsoiling— The  im- 
portance of  compacting  the  land  — Deep  plowing.  — Z)ryiMjr 
and  u-avming  the  land—  Forming  a  hard-pan  —  Storage 
capacity  of  the  soil— Deep  and  shallow  soil-reservoirs- 
Underdraining.  -Aeration  promoted  by  pJouing  —  i^oW  may 
be  too  compact  or  too  open  — Importance  of  aeration.— 
Nitrification  promoted  by  ploicing-Sitrogen  most  essen- 
tial early  in  the  life  of  the  i>\&nt.  — Physical  conditions 
improved  by  plowing  — Importa-iwe  of  well-pulverized  soil- 
Roots  should  go  deep.  — /'/oi<'i»i</  to  bring  fertility  to  the 
«ur/ac«f  — Upward  movement  of  pinnt-food  — Amelioration 
of  alkali  lands  — Root-pruning.  — P/oiriii^  to  bury  (rash  — 
Disposing  of  weeds  and  vegetable  matter   ....       72-87 

Times  and  methods  of  plowing.  When  to  p/ou.-- Fall 
plowing  —  Wire-worms  —  Spring  plowing.  —  When  not  to 
p?0MJ  — Plowing  when  too  wet  or  too  dry.— How  to  plow  — 
The  shape  of  the  "lands  "— Plowinp  for  surface  drain- 
age—Deep    and     shallow     plowing— -Vrrangemeut     of     the 


Contents.  xi 


driving  lines   for  three  horses  — The  plowing  team.  — Zi.-^ 
of  draft   in  plows  — The   traces    and   the  evener— Figures 

of   draft 87-99 

Surface  tillage.  The  seed-bed  — Reasons  for  tilling 
the  surface  — Experience  in  California  orchards  — Tilling 
to  destroy  weeds  — The  tools  — Inter-til!agc.  —  /»t;)?«'»ie»i^? 
/or  surface  tilHtir/  —  The  roller  —  Flankers  —  Harrows  — 
Spring-toothed  harrows  — The  Acme  harrow  type.  — Cult i- 
ratorx  are  of  numberless  prttterps  —  The  form  of  the 
blades— Inter-tillage  for  the  cereals  —  Seeding  with  an 
associate  crop    .........       99-107 


CHAPTER   IV. 

COXSERVATION  OF  MOISTURE         ^ 108-119 

Necessity  of  water  to  transport  plant-foods— The  philos- 
ophy of  moisture-storage  and  the  earth-mulch  — Shading 
the  soil  — Mulching— The  herbage-cover  of  grass  lands- 
Humus- Details  of  the  earth-mulch  — Compaction  of  the 
sub-surface  soil  — Puddling— Depth  of  the  earth-mulch  — 
Cover  crops  — Late  tillage  — Potato  culture  — Conserving 
moisture  in  sowed  crops  — Root  habits  of  the  plants. 


CHAPTER    V. 
Irrigation  and  Drainage 120-130 

Relation  of  the  chapter  to  the  previous  discussions. 

Irrigation.  A  problem  of  engineering— Irrigation  in 
dry  and  in  humid  climates  — The  practice  to  be  largely 
governed  by  the  price  of  the  product— Work  in  the  upper 
Mississippi  valley— What  are  deserts?  — Some  areas  not 
worth  irrigating 120-I2ti 

Drainage.  Philosophy  of  under-draining— Ammonia 
from  rain-fall  — Improving  the  physical  characteristics  of 
soil- Method  of  laying  tiles  127-130 


xu 


Contents. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

Farm   Maxlres 

Definitions. 

General  considerations  respecting  the  ise  ok 
MANURES.  Tlu-y  are  unbalanced  — Methods  of  compari 
son  — Value  of  manures  depends  in  part  upon  the  plants- 
Demands  made  by  wheat  — Composition  of  manures- 
Availability  of  the  elements  in  farm  manures  — Application 
of  manures  to  different  types  of  land  — Conclusions  re- 
specting the  use  and  value  of  farm  manures 

FA<Tf>RS     WHICH      DKTERMINE       THE     QUALITY      <»K      rARM 

MANURES.  That  from  young  animals  least  valuable- 
Varies  with  the  species  of  animal  — Also  with  the  use  to 
which  the  animal  is  put  — Manure  of  mature  animals  — 
What  the  animal  takes  from  the  food  — Extent  of  carbon- 
aceous matter— Potential  energy  of  foods  — Kinds  of  food 
Influence  the  kind  of  manure— Individuality  of  the  ani- 
mal—The water  drunk  influences  manure  — The  bedding- 
The  bedding  may  injure  the  manure  .... 


PAOES 

131-14H 


132-141 


141-148 


CHAPTER    VII. 


Manures  Produced  by  Various  Anlmals                         .  149-182 
Manures  t«.  fertilizers  — Computed  values  of  manures. 

.\    DISCUSSION   or  THE   MANURE   OF   CATTLE  132-l'i_' 

Studies  op  horse  manure     ......  162-ltih 

livert  stable  manure           .....  166-167 

Discussion  op  sheep  excrements          ....  167-170 

Manure  and  excrements  op  swine       ....  171-174 

Analyses  op  the  excrement  op  powls  I74-l?i» 

Miscillanedus  statlstics  op  animal  .manures  I80-1S2 


CHAPTER    VIII. 


,  lSU-1^7 


Contents.  xiii 

CHAPTER   IX. 

PAOBS 

The    Care,    Preservation    and   Application    of    Ma- 
nures     188-2i:{ 

Importance  of  saviug  manures. 

Loss     IN      MANURES      DIK     TO     WEATHERINO     AND      EXPO- 

si'RE.  Importance  of  bousing  manures  —  Liquid  ma- 
nures—The open  barnyard  —  Statistics  of  loss  in  ma- 
nures—The relation  of  the  manure  to  the  food  consumed.      188-201 

Covered  manure  yards.  The  present  conditions- 
Importance  of  cover  for  both  animals  and  manure- 
Description  and  pictures  of  manure  sheds         .  .  .     201-2Q7 

The  application  of  manures.  Why  manures  may 
be  applied  to  land  — Fall  and  spring  applications  — Place 
of  manures  in  the  rotation  — Applications  to  orchards  — 
Too  liberal  use  of  manures  — Manure  on  claj*  and  grass 
lands  — Spreading  manures         ......     207-21:? 


CHAPTER   X. 

Nitrogen  and  Nitrification 214-248 

How  to  detect  the  presence  of  much  nitrogen— Po- 
tential nitrogen  is  abundant  — Nitrogen  made  useful  by 
tillage  — Nitrogen  shows  in  the  vegetative  growth  — Ex- 
periments with  wheat  — Potatoes  — Maize  — The  need  and 
oflSee  of  nitrogen  — The  importance  of  direct  question- 
ing of  the  soil  and  the  crop— Sources  of  nitrogen  in 
farm  lands  — Cover  and  catch  crops  — Lime  and  nitrifi- 
cation-Gypsum and  nitrification  — Fallows  in  relation  to 
nitrification  — The  conditions  in  the  south. 

Prevention  of  loss  in  nitrogen  in  stable  ma- 
nures. Abstracts  of  the  opinions  of  Immendcrff— Loss 
due  to  access  of  air  —  Conditions  of  nitrogen-loss  — 
Straw,  muck,  and  earth  to  save  nitrogen  — The  action 
of  lime,  copperas,  gypsum,  kainit  and  superphosphates  — 
Experiments  in  stables  — Conclusions,  recommending  the 
use  of  dry  earth       232-244 


xxt 


Contents. 


PAOE8 

EiPLANATios  or  NiTBiricATios.  The  changen  In 
nitroiBren-compounds— Nitrification  a  biological  problem  — 
Conditions  favoring  the  niioro-organisms  —  Liming  the 
land-Denitrification 244-248 


CHAPTER    XI. 


Thk  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash  Supply 


249-269 


Variation    in    amounts    and    usefulness   of    these    plant 
foods. 

Husbanding  the  mineral  plant-foods.  How  far 
shall  tillage  and  farm-practice  be  invoked  to  utilize  the 
stores  of  native  plant-food?  — The  amount  in  the  soil  — 
Abandonment  of  wheat  farming— Cover  crops  to  utilize 
these  materials— Lime  and  gj-psum  in  relation  to  potash  .     249-256 

Comparison  ok  native  soils  with  those  cl'ltivated 
FOR,SEVF.RAL  YEARS.  Facts  from  the  Red  River  Valley- 
Depletion  of  humus,  and  therefore  of  moisture-holding 
capacity  and  of  nitrogen     .......     256-259 

CHAPTER   Xn. 


Commercial  Fertilizers  260-302 

Statistics  of  the  fertilizer  industry  —  Future  of  soil-pro 
duction— Productivity  of  the  land  and  national  prosperity 

General  remarks  upon  the  vse  of  commercial  fir 
TILIZERS.  Questioning  the  soil  — Numerous  brands  of  fer 
tilizers  — State  laws  — Can  farmers  afford  to  use  chemical 
fertilizers  ?  — Do  fertilizers  deplete  the  soil?  — Do  they 
stimulate  it  f  — Timeliness  of  application  — Complete  fer- 
tilizers             264-273 

Some  spEciric  advice  as  to  fertilizers  and  crops. 
High-priced  products  may  be  heavily  fertilized  — Applica- 
tions of  nitrogen  — Some  soils  respond  more  readily  than 
others  do— A  specific  example  on  Cayuga  Lake  — Fertiliz- 
ers should  be  adjacent  to  the  seed  — Effects  in  succeeding 
crops  ......  ...     273-277 


Contents.  xv 


Estimating  the  <'Ommerc'ial  value  of  fertilizers. 
Tables  of  trade  values  — Average  prices  actually  paid  in 
New  York  State  — Actual  value  cannot  bje  determined- 
Sample  guarantees  — Insoluble  phosphoric  acid  and  its 
value— The  farmer  must  experiment  for  himself        .         .     277-28}* 

Home  mixing  of  fertilizers.  Sample  mixture.s,  and 
the  manner  of  computing  them  — Conclusions      .         .         .     289-207 

A   WORD   ON    THE    CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    SUPERPHOSPHATES. 

Elements  and  compounds  — The  three  calcic   phosphates- 
Treatment  with  sulfuric  acid  — Reverted  phosphoric  acid   .     298-302 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

Lime  and  Various  Amendments        .        .        .        .        .  303-341 
Definition  of  amendment. 

Lime.  Its  source  — Historical  sketch  — Cover  crops  and 
liming — Weight  of  lime  — Effect  of  hydrated  lime  on 
sand}'  land  — On  clay  land  — Decomposes  'organic  matter- 
Accelerates  nitrification- How  to  slake  it  — How  to  apply 
it  — Conclusions  ........     U03-312 

Liming  to  (.okrect  acidity  of  soil.  The  experiments 
at  Rhode  Island  Station  — Opinions  of  chemists  — Clover 
and  timothy  fail  on  sour  lands  — The  plants  which  are  in- 
dicative of  sour  lands  — Sourness  not  confined  to  low 
lands  — Soils  containing  lime  may  still  be  sour— Pictures 
of  experimental  crops  .......     313-327 

Gypscm,  or  land  plaster.  Used  less  than  formerly — 
Variation  in  its  composition  — Why  and  when  plaster  is 
valuable— Use  on  alkali  lands— (iypsuni  and  moisture  327-333 

Ashes.  Composition  and  value  — Table  of  analyses  — 
Coal-ashes.  .........      .333-335 

Cotton-seed  hill  ashes.  Method  of  making— Com- 
position—Value  as  a  fertilizer  ......     335-336 

RivEK  AND  swamp  mud,  AND  PEAT.  Analyses  ot- 
Value  of 336-337 


XVI 


Contenh. 


Marl.     (^on8tituent8  of— Viiluf  as  a  dressinjif  for  land  . 

Muck.     VariouB  analyses  — Value  as  a  fertilizer 

Salt.      Its    uses    on    land— Plants    seem    to    laok    it- 
Conserving  moisture  by  salt  — Conservinsr  fertility 


PAOES 

.337-33X 
338-.^'^<• 


339-341 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

Green  M.^ntres  .\ni)  F.\i,lows .142r-3'>.') 

(,.'iA>VKRs.  Why  clovers  are  valuable  — The  root  sys 
teni  — Composition  of  clovers- They  remove  plant-food  — 
.\lfalfR  — ('ompt>sition  of  late-sown  clover  — Other  green 
manures      ...........      342-34M 

Fali-Ows.  An  ancient  custom— Beni-ttts  derived  from 
fallowinsr  —  How  often  to  plow  — (ireen  fallows  —  Short 
fallows  — Conclusions  .......     349-.J.')") 


CHAPTEU    XV 


KoTATioNs    350-372 

Diftlculty  of  determining;  what  plants  need  — Different 
needs  of  different  crops  — Some  crops  need  extra  care 
whilst  younjf  —  Rotation  in  trees  —  Some  plants  feed 
mostly  from  the  air  —  Plants  vary  in  assiniilative 
power— Comparisons   with    animals. 

Specific;  uirections  ipon  kot.xtions.  They  receive 
small  attention  in  America  —What  rotation  may  accom- 
plish—Influence upon  weeds  — Wheat  and  clover  rota- 
tions—Rotations increase  productivity  —  Four-year  rota- 
tion  — Inter-tilled  crops  followed  by  spring  cereals  — Com- 
l>anionships  of  wee<ls  and  crops  —  Rotations  on  grass 
lands  — Rotation  may  economize  plant-food  —  A  rotation 
for  the  cl»ver  root-bore  —  Insects  and  rotations— Distri- 
butinn  of  the  work  of  the  year— A  three-year  rotation 
fur  light  lands— Long  and  short  rotations  compared  31)1-372 


Contents .  xvii 

Faueh 

Appendix :}73-403 

Authorises  cited  —  Animal  excrements  —  Animal  pro- 
ducts—Bedding materials  — Chaff,  hulls  and  shells  — Com- 
jiiercial  plants  — Fertilizing  materials  — Fruits,  leaves  and 
nuts  — Green  fodders  — Hay  — Leaves,  etc.,  of  vegetables- 
Mill   products  — Roots  — Seeds  — Straw— Vegetables. 

Index 405-41."^ 


THE  FERTILITY  OP  THE  LAND. 


A  CHAT  WITH  THE  YOUNG  FARMER. 

In  the  hurry  and  unrest  of  a  new  country,  few- 
have  time  or  inclination  to  become  familiar  with 
plant  and  animal  life  as  seen  in  the  field  and  wood, 
and  fewer  still  have  looked  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth  as  anything  but  a  mass  of  dirt,  the  particles 
of  which  are  to  be  avoided  or  removed  whenever 
they  offend    the  sight    or    interfere  with  comfort. 

Fill  a  flower- pot  with  the  soft,  dark  earth  and 
mold  from  the  border  of  the  wood,  and  carry  it  to 
the  student  of  entomology,  and  see  if  he  can  name 
one -half  of  the  living  forms  of  this  little  kingdom  of 
life ;  or  hand  it  to  the  botanist,  well  trained  in  th«' 
lower  orders  of  plants,  and  see  how  many  of  the  liv- 
ing forms  which  these  few  handfuls  of  dirt  contain 
he  can  classify.  Present  this  miniature  farm  to  the 
chemist  and  the  physicist,  and  let  them  puzzle  over 
it.  Call  in  the  farmer,  and  ask  him  what  plants  will 
thrive  best  in  it ;  or  keep  the  soil  warm  and  moist 
for  a  time,  and  have  the  gardener  say  of  the  tiny 
plants  that  appear  as  by  magic  which  are  good  and 
which  are  bad.  Mark  well  what  all  these  experts 
have  said,  and   call    in  the  orehardist  to  tell   you  how 


2  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

to  change  dead,  lifeless,  despised  earth  into  fruit ;  ask 
the  physiolofjist  to  explain  how  sodden  earth  is  trans- 
formed into  nerve  and  brain.  With  this  extended 
little  field  in  view,  choose  the  profession  of  agricul- 
ture if  you  love  rural  pursuits,  but  comprehend  fully 
that  in  doing  so  you  are  entering  upon  the  most  dif- 
ficult of  all  pursuits  :  difiBcult  in  ordinary  times, 
doubly  so  under  the  present  conditions,  which  have 
come  about  so  rapidly  that  they  are  almost  incom- 
prehensible. 

The  American  inherits  from  his  European  ances- 
tors an  inordinate  desire  for  landed  estates.  In  ear- 
lier days,  many  farmers  acquired  land  by  the  square 
mile,  and  all  secured  more  than  they  could  farm  well. 
The  Federal  Government  sold  at  nominal  prices,  gave 
away  and  indirectly  forced  land  upon  all  comers,  not 
even  reserving  the  hilly  timber  lands  which,  if  they 
had  been  reserved,  would  have  tempered  the  climatf 
and  have  been  an  ever-present  source  of  wealth. 
The  Homestead  Act  has  not  brought  unmixed  bless- 
ings. The  whole  course  of  our  federal  poli(;y  to- 
wards public  lands  has  tended  to  produce  soil -rob- 
bers, not  farmers.  Transportation  by  steam  power 
has  made  the  products  of  vast  inland  areas  salable, 
giving  value  to  lands  which  were  valueless,  but  the 
same  power  has  also  brought  the  products  of  Asia, 
Africa  and  South  America  into  (competition  in  the 
markets   of   the  world. 

From  18G1  to  186"),  vast  numbers  of  men  were 
transferred  from  the  producing  to  the  consuming 
class,  and  the  prices  of    farm  products   became   abnor- 


A    (jhul    inth    the    Young    Fanner.  3 

mally  high  when  measured  by  an  inflated  enrrency. 
These  conditions  could  not  fail  to  mislead  and  dis- 
appoint many  when  the  population  and  the  currency 
were  restored  to  normal  conditions.  At  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War,  in  addition  to  a  vast  influx  of  for- 
eigners, there  were  added  to  the  farming  community 
many  soldiers  who,  in  the  high  prices,  saw  quick 
and  large  returns  from  the  rich  lands  which  had  by 
this  time  been  opened  to  settlers  by  the  construction 
of  extended  systems  of  railway.  During  the  third 
quarter  of  the  century  inventive  genius  so  improved 
the  appliances  of  agriculture  as  to  quadruple  the  pro- 
ductive   power  of    each    farmer. 

Prom  1870  to  1880,  the  percentage  increase  of 
new  farms  was  50.71  per  cent,  while  the  percentage 
of  increase  of  population  was  30.8  per  cent.  From 
1880  to  1890,  the  increase  was  but  13.86  per  cent, 
but  the  increase  of  population  was  24.86  per  cent. 
This  shows  that,  for  a  time,  the  percentage  increase 
of  farms  vastly  outran  the  percentage  increase  of 
population.  It  also  shows  that  the  conditions  pre- 
vailing before  1880  are  being  so  rapidly  reversed 
that  the  percentage  increase  in  population  may  out- 
run that  of  farms  far  enough  to  greatly  improve 
the  home  markets  of  many  farm  products  in  the 
near  future.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  farmer  is  wise 
who  adjusts  himself  quickly  to  present  conditions,  so 
unlike  those  of  his  father.  To  do  this,  he  must  see 
clearly  and  think  straight ;  he  must  have  good  ex- 
ecutive ability,  as  well  as  training  and  practice  in 
well-defined    business   methods.      To    see   clearly,    the 


4  The    FertilUy    of  the    iMnd. 

t\ve  must  he  trajned  to  take  in  a  multitude  of  ob- 
jeets  quickly,  to  sort,  compare  and  phototjraph  on 
the  sensitive  brain  those  which  are  worth  preserv- 
ing. To  think  straight,  many  scientific;  ficts,  or 
items  of  knowledge,  arranged  in  order,  must  V)e  ac- 
quired, and  these  can  be  secured  only  by  long,  pains- 
taking effort. 

But  to  know  is  not  enough  ;  the  ability  to  exe- 
cute must  be  joined  to  knowledge,  and  executive 
skill  is  acquired  in  its  highest  form  only  by  the 
direction  and  management  of  large  affairs.  It  can- 
not be  learned  in  the  class-room,  nor  formulated 
in  a  text-book,  and  it  is  seldom  learned  by  the  farm 
boy  because  of  want  of  opportunity ;  hence  the  les- 
sons of  the  beginner  are  usually  manifold,  the  tuition 
for  the  first  term  high,  and  the  whole  is  paid  for 
from  his  own  resources,  while  young  teachei-s,  pro- 
fessional and  business  men  get  free  tuition  because 
they  learn  at  the  expense  of  their  employers.  What 
has  been  said  of  executive  ability  applies  with  nearly 
equal  force  to  business  ability,  the  lack  of  which  in 
(rity  and  in  country  is  evidenced  in  the  newspa- 
pers  by  the    word    "assignment." 

To  the  clear  eye,  to  the  intellectual  equipment,  to 
executive  ability  and  trained  business  methods,  must 
be  added  manual  dexterity.  Until  recently  the  un- 
told fertile  acres,  the  favorable  conditions,  and  the 
simple  wants  of  the  people,  have  arrested,  in  agri- 
culture, the  operation  of  that  great  law — the  survival 
of  the  fittest.  It  has  liecu  said  that  "'anybody  can 
farm."      That  was,  but  is  not   true.      From  this   time 


A    Chat   with    the    Young   Farmer.  5 

on  the  struggle  in  farming  will  be  such  as  it  has 
been  in  mercantile  affairs  for  some  time.  The  unfitted 
in  agriculture  will  have  to  yield  for  the  same  reason 
that  many  little  factories,  located  off  the  lines  of 
transportation,  furnished  with  inadequate  power,  ma- 
chinery and  brains,  have  been  abandoned.  Many 
hillsides  will  be  left  to  (iover  their  nakedness  with  a 
new  growth  of  liardj*  vegetation.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
how  well  equipped  the  farmer  should  be,  how  fer- 
tile in  brain,  in  imagination  and  in  resources  ;  how 
full  of  wisdom,  of  enthusiasm,  of  faith  ;  how  quick 
to  see,  how  prompt  to  execute,  how  patient  to  endure 
under  difficulties,  if  the  fertility  of  his  land  is  to  be 
transformed  into  abundant  and  perfect  fruits  and 
flowers. 

This  book  is  dedicated  to  the  30ung  farmers  of 
America.  I  am  well  acquainted  with  you  all,  though 
you  are  not  acquainted  with  me,  and  being  acquaint- 
ed and  older  than  you  are,  I  cannot  foi-bear  entei-- 
ing  into  a  little  familiar  chat.  I  know  your  thoughts, 
your  toils  and  sorrows  and  discouragements;  your  as- 
pirations, hopes  and  joys.  I  know,  too,  what  fiber, 
endurance  and  patience  farm  work  gives  to  the 
boys  who  make  the  most  of  what  an  outdoor  life  with 
nature  has  to  offer.  I  know  how  hot  it  is  in  AugTist 
under  the  peak  of  the  flat-roofed  barn,  how  large 
the  forkfuls  are  that  the  stalwart  pitcher  thrusts  into 
the  only  hole  where  light  and  air  can  enter.  I 
know  how  high  the  thistles  grow,  and  how  far  the 
rows  of  corn  stretch  out.  I  know,  too,  the  freedom, 
fun  and  work  of  the  old  farm  that  make  one  expand. 


6  The    Fertiliiy    of  thf    Land. 

enjoy  and  prow,  and  leave  no  bitter  memories.  I 
know  you  well,  my  boy, — how  green  and  brown  you 
feel  wheji  you  come  to  the  noisy  city,  and  how  you 
would    like    to    be    free    and    cool    again  ! 

You  have  seen  for  the  thousandth  time  the  long, 
wavy  line  of  smoke  as  the  train  goes  swinging  by. 
winding  in  and  (mt  among  the  hills.  Then  you 
have  longed  to  drive  that  mighty  iron  horse,  feed 
him  on  lire,  and  nuike  him  leap  away  in  wild  free- 
dom. Or,  perhaps  you  do  not  aspire  so  high,  and 
would  be  content  to  run  a  street -car.  You  have 
even  admired  the  bright  letters  on  the  caps  of  the 
motormen,  and  you  would  exchange  your  freedom  for 
the  blue  coats  and  shiny  1)uttons.  So  intently  have 
you  longed  to  have  some  great  corporation  brand 
and  number  you,  when  the  tasks  at  home  were  hard, 
that  you  have  even  i)lanne(l  to  sli])  down  those  huge 
porch  posts  at  night  with  your  little  bundle  on  a 
stick.  But  when  night  came  you  fell  asleep,  and  the 
morning  sun  found  you  with  thickened  blood,  temp- 
tation gone  and  courage  for  another  day.  Love 
and  inherited  pluck  saved  you.  You  were  not  ready 
for  the  city :  you  lacked  knowledge,  sea.soned  fiber 
and  judgment.  We  never  send  colts  to  the  city  ; 
they  lose  their  heads  and  get  "stove  up"  by  rapid 
pace  and  rough,  hard  streets.  The  city  may  need  you 
later,  but  sidewalks  are  hot  and  hard,  while  the 
country    roads    are   soft   and   cool. 

My  scientific  reader  is  getting  anxious  to  know 
what  nuiuner  of  book  this  is,  and  in  his  heart  he 
thinks    I    would    better    have    been    telling    you    how 


A    Chat   with    the    Young    Farmer.  7 

energy  is  changed  into  heat,  heat  into  motion,  and 
then  back  into  potential  energy  again.  But  let  him 
wait ;  you  and  I  are  to  finish  our  chat  before  wr 
sit   down  to   hard   study. 

All  are  greatly  interested  in  you,  my  boy  !  We 
cannot  see  how  to  get  along  without  you,  and  yet  no 
one  cares  very  much  where  you  were  born,  where 
you  live  or  how  low  you  start,  how  high  you 
climb  or  what  you  do,  so  long  as  you  do  right  and 
lead  a  useful  life.  The  world  cares  how  you  work, 
and  it  is  interested  in  the  progress  of  civilization. 
It  asks  that  every  one  of  you  start  from  just  where 
you  are,  without  grumbling  and  with  courage,  and 
climb  faithfully,  honestly  and  in  harmony  with  na- 
ture's modes  of  action,  and  the  bars  which  guard  the 
wealth  of  soil  and  the  accumulation  of  man's  toil 
will  then  fly  back  at  your  bidding.  But  wealth 
should  be  sought  not  for  the  pleasure  of  securing  and 
possessing  it,  but  as  a  means  to  higher  ends.  When 
rightly  used,  it  relieves  its  possessor  from  a  too  se- 
vere struggle  for  mere  existence,  and  gives  time  and 
opportunity ,  for  acquiring  useful  and  pleasurable 
knowledge,  which  in  turn  naturally  leads  to  a  fuller 
comprehension  of  the  real  and  enduring  verities 
which,  though  unseen  by  the  natural  eye,  are  all 
that  remain  at  the  close  of  life.  Financial  reserves 
and  mental  training  are  the  two  great  stepping-stones 
by  which  mankind  may  reach  a  higher  plane  of  ex- 
istence. On  this  higher  plane,  the  environment  is 
so  broad  and  grand,  the  air  so  pure  and  thoughts  so 
lofty,   that  all    woi-k,   however   menial,   becomes   inspir- 


8  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

ing,   and   study,  however  hard,  is  pleasant  and  enno- 
bling. 

So,  my  young  farmers, —  who  should  be  the  pride 
of  the  nation  and  the  anchor  which  holds  the  thought- 
less from  drifting  towards  anarchy, — be  honest  witli 
the  soil  and  with  yourself.  As  you  acquire  health, 
fiber,  purpose,  and  courage  in  mounting  the  first  step, 
do  not  stop  at  the  second  or  the  third.  Aim  high, 
for  it  has  been  written:  "Aim  at  the  sun.  and  you 
may  not  reach  it;  but  your  arrow  will  fly  far  higlicr 
than  if  aimed  at  an  object  on  a  level  with  yourself." 
In  the  hurry  of  this  intensely  utilitarian  age,  not 
only  may  health  and  life  be  curtailed,  but  the  better 
and  loftier  sides  of  our  nature  are  in  danger  of  be- 
coming dwarfed.  While  I  may  not  stop  to  discuss 
the  moral  bearings  of  our  profession,  yet  may  I  not 
ask  my  young  reader  to  study  what  I  have  written 
in  a  broad  and  generous  spirit,  in  order  that  the 
higher  ends  to  be  sought  by  study  of  the  utilitarian 
side  of  the  farmer's  activities,  which  is  presented  in 
the   following   chapters,    may   be   kept  iu   mind! 


CHAPTER  I. 

AN   INVENTORY    OF    THE    LAND. 

The  term  fertility  is  eomniouly  used  in  a  special 
sense,  meaning  an  abundance  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash,  but  its  true  meaning  is  productive 
power.  One  acre  of  land  may  contain  thousands  of 
pounds  of  plant -food  and  yet  be  infertile,  while 
another  one  may  not  contain  a  liberal  supply  of  the 
elements  of  plant  growth,  and  yet  be  productive.  If 
land  contains  a  reasonable  amount  of  potential  plant- 
food  and  fails  to  give  satisfactory  results,  it  would 
appear  to  be  both  unbusinesslike  and  unscientific  to 
add  plant -food  rather  than  to  use  that  already  in  pos- 
session. 

Large  quantities  of  plant -food  have  been  locked  up 
in  the  fields  since  their  creation,  and  might  as  well 
not  have  been  created  for  all  the  good  which  they 
have  yet  rendered  mankind.  The  first  problem,  there- 
fore, that  presents  itself  for  solution,  is  how  best  to 
make  available  the  stores  of  potential  fertility  in  the 
soil.  Before  entering  upon  the  subjects  of  cultivation 
and  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  land,  an  inves- 
tigation should  be  made  by  questioning  the  soil,  to 
discover  approximately  the  amounts  and  availability 
pf  the  plant -food  in  the  land,  what  drafts  it  is  desir- 
es) 


10  The  Fertility  of  the  Land. 

able  to  make  upon  it,  how  it  responds  to  the  de- 
mands, and  what  is  likely  to  be  brought  to  the  land 
fi'om  home  resources. 

Some  soils  respond  quickly  to  tillage,  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  potential  plant-food  which  they  contain 
is  easily  made  available.  Most  light  and  sandy  soils 
are  of  this  character.  Others,  as  heavy  clays,  in  which 
the  abundant  elements  of  plant  life  are  likely  to  be 
tenaciously  held  in  combination  with  other  matter, 
require  skill  and  expensive  treatment  to  make  these 
elements  available.  Still  another  class  contains  del- 
eterious compounds,  which  must  be  oxidized,  or 
leached  out.  or  some  chemical  action  must  take  place 
to  change  the  compounds  into  new  forms  which  may 
he  beneficial,  or  at  least  not  injurious  to  plant  growth. 

A  careful  investigator  discovers  at  once  that  i)ro- 
(luctivity  is  not  the  simple  question  of  lack  or  abun- 
dance of  potential  plant-food  in  the  soil,  and  that, 
although  productivity  may  be  increa.sed  by  adding  or 
withholding  one  or  more  elements,  the  problem  of 
how  to  most  economically  increase  prodiu'tion  is  com- 
plex. It  is  not  necessarily  solved  by  the  mere  adding 
of  fertilizing  substances  to  the  soil. 

One  writer  has  said  that  the  best  fertilizer  for 
heavy  clay  land  is  blind  drains  ;  another,  that  deep 
plowing  is  the  chief  agent.  Yet  sonu'  portions  of 
New  Jersey  were  changed,  between  1820  and  1850, 
from  a  sandy  semi-desert  into  fruitful  fields  of  wheat 
and  maize,  producing  two  or  three  times  as  much 
as  the  average  yield  of  the  state,  by  plowing 
which    was    seldom    deeper   than    four   inches.     Others, 


Agencies   AfferJing    Fertility.  •    11 

whose  opinions  are  not  to  be  despised,  believe  that 
the  red  clover  plant  is  a  universal  panacea  for  the 
ills  of  impoverished  soils;  while  Jethro  Tull,  that 
thoughtful  benefactor  of  English  agriculture,  held 
strongly  to  the  belief  that  frequent  and  appropriate 
horse -hoe  tillage  would  result  in  maximum  crops  for 
an    indefinite    period   of   time. 

The  modern  thought  is  to  keep  many  domestic  ani- 
mals, and  return  in  their  voidings  much  of  the  plant- 
food  removed  from  the  land.  But,  manifestly,  all 
persons  cannot  put  this  method  into  practice,  and  if 
they  could,  this  scheme  does  not  provide  for  waste 
and  toll  in  many  forms  which  must  occur  between 
the  harvesting  of  the  plants  and  the  return  to  the 
fields  of  the  residuum.  Then,  too,  the  physical  con- 
ditions of  the  soil,  the  moisture  stored  in  it.  its  tem- 
perature, the  amount  of  sunshine,  and  otlicr  climatic 
influences,  all  play  such  important  parts  in  the  final 
results,  that  they  not  infrequently  become  a  primary, 
and  plant-food  a  secondary,  factor  in  production.  It 
is  needless  to  multiply  illustrations  to  show  how 
complex   and    difficult    the    question    becomes. 


THE     X.\TIVE     PLANT -P^OOD     IX     THE     SOIL. 

The  following  tables  give  forty -nine  well  authen- 
ticated analyses  of  American  soils.  In  compiling 
them,  care  has  been  taken  to  use  no  analyses 
which  seemed  to  be  phenomenally  low  or  high,  as 
well  as  to  secure  those  made  by  chemists  of  wide  rep- 
utation : 


12    . 


The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 


•JIM  \ 


-e.unog 


k'i- 


tr.   a  i.  £; 


a.  ^:  ^ 

«,-    — 

-•    e  ■ . 


•jK.C(«uv 


-  I-  ^  e   si. 

-  .-   —  '-    J,  —  : 

H   >;  d  if  OS 


•|108  -ni  81SI 


•(tos  'ui  8  ^si 
"1  SO'd    "'ri 


^  a-  o  :j  ■"!  o  X  =  -<  «  ?i  e»  to  -r  «r  X  a  »  fi  X 

cssi'^csffi'rcixxcaxo  —  cxsi":ticti 

?i_-"_ci_c_i  —  to  ?i_3x  o_i~  c_  ■^x_x  50I-:  ci  ■^ 

r^  f-^ -^  to  i~^  w^     n         ^  in  V^f'Tcowss* 


nos  ui  8 
;8t  u;   x   sq'I 


o  p  X  o  a;  Q  o  o  —  -^  —  ci  r>  n  X  PI  m  X  t~  — 

—  1^  — i  «  *  £  re  *  ?i  ji  r- -•  1-  — -r  —  ~  K  c;  I- 

r5  ri^ri -fr;  i-_es_i- refi  o  rt  x  es  u*  ■- to  « -r  ii 

X  a  ■^  ^  tti  tn  >.•{  ifi  s-i  t-^  ^i  to  — "m'«"      r-T— ■->; 


«  —  I-  X      »  C3  to  I-  "t  rt  •-    *    >- 
tocsM'r'.'ttomtoxrt-^Ji    •-    u-iSMfjasiS^ 


C^H'-  re  cc  c>)  ro      ?i      —    cc 


N        M  —  — 


V  'ajn)8|o]( 


HSBJOJ 


;iis. 

y.  £  c.     e 


•pps   soqj 
■ox 


i3HiliHi§?3a 

?i 

5aid':S-.2S 

Nt->  — 

S5  -S  S  U  .-  =-.'  ?,  o  ^^'  5  ;:  1; 

CO  — Jiido'-scdci 

ti 

l3253„a? 

es  rs  ^n  71  tn              5>  ^      i-'s 

3 

f2S§gS2 

•  ri .-:  ■♦u';  »(- x«  =  —  ri    n    -MceDr-»oif 


Soil    A  valysfs. 


13 


XI-  r*  cc 


ift  ift  o  a>  1-1  CO -^f  o -^  ift  t- » CO  »ft      »-<      :3 

OiaOOtr^-ffOCO-      —  —  —     —        — 


r-iCO'^OO-^t'COtOt^iOOOM*-'^^         fC         "I 


C>4C>)Csl  r-1  ^  .-I 


"  c?      i-«  ro  ;m      c; 


O  CD  CO  Ci  u'^  ».'5  Cl  I* 

C3  CO  c^  ->r  rc  o  i--^  cc  • 


3        i 


_^«iftOi       QOCQ^kO       MMWr- 
ooooosao^HCiOO«ooosr-3i^^ 


«ioaoc*3^aoosu'^escO'<f^x 


o<— ■^'^r-xxroc^cO'^^t^ 


s§: 


S?JaSSgSiSSSS^S?S 


■SUl'g     181 


—    15    »    OO    O   ^I 

;;  a  ??  s  s  » 


4.IIO8  JO 
•801  8    jsi 


+  [!0s 

jO    SUl  g  JBl 

ni    jj   sqrj 


■l(8BlOd 


•3  «  30  o  5j  >2 

3b  a  rt  S  o  O 

•♦  fi  e4  irt  3B  t- 

n  ci  in  n  n  <x 


3  S  oc  i  o  i~ 

S>    -«    I-    F^  -J    T 

w  cc  irT  ira  CO  00 


if^  ir:  i;^  Q  o  ic 

35  .-I  Q  CI  is  OS 

S  -r  S  »  r^  cc 

w  .-i  ■-.■  -i  -<■  c 


*   JUd.)    JdJ 

'uaSoJiix 


m 

nr 

^ 

0 

IT" 

C  = 

2 

" 

*! 

^ 

J)  f;   aJ 

■=  S    3 

•;Ji 

0 

R  i'-  '^ 

•5::  .2 

=  s,  a 

■^       0 

C 

s 

— 

-^ 

; 

'J 

*  s   ^^ 

s 

4, 

•=  =  S 

•"  "  3 

0 

s 

•i' 

01 

a 

0 

a 

0 

£2i 

e 

ei 

u 

S 

* 

a 

C 

L- 

CS  ° 

CS 
C 

_> 

>  S 

a 
5 
0 

9 
> 

s"^"! 

«=_§    3 

"S 

> 

s 

^ 

^ 

c    --  ^ 

s 

^ 

J^ 

iT; 

J^ 

p  =  ^ 

-  -  >  >  r 


14 


The    Fn-lilitu    nf  ///^    ImiuI. 


'V*»\ 


■«Ainos 


'itj^lBay 


•]I08  -Utg  »St 


s 

g 

■r 

I 

*-■ 

|: 

-   CSC. 

,   Z=  -   = 

:   :   :    ^ 

eg 

<;&. 

s 

a. 

b 

;^&< 

X 

^ 

\rt  v>  >r!  c*  n  \r. 


o  X  I 


t~_  "•*  - '.  "<;  *i  ~  — .  *  ~  ~  X  ", ' 


)  I'- « 


-^ 


c£      *      T% 

?r    V    V 


i^i 


grt  «  « tocio-t- 
»o      w  u-^  t-  5  ci  I*  oc  rt  i.": 
V    'ijnjiiioi^  «  •♦  n  ■♦aooot-;>n  rt  *  *  aoStn  ci 

I  ^ '"  ^  !>'  2      " 

•   O*  M  pi-wi-Sinxg5  —  ^  —  ^»'^'P 

'osvioj  I    ,«•« —  oc*fsR<i  ■»!->.-.  rt  —  c  ft 

I      --^-" 

•O^    '      "-Nr;  ^«a<ot~  X  OS  o  —  wo^ift 


M 

_         19 

o      > 


AnalyseH    of  SuhsoiJs. 


15 


••»«9A 


-0ojno>j 


•}SjC(Buy 


•[tos  ni  gpu,- 

11 1'     ()i\[    -sfi'i 


•Ijos  ui  8  pu<; 


•[ps  •UI  8 

1)U5  Ul    X  -Sfiri 


'A         A 


.    <  05  rJ  lt  I  — 1 

rt  o  »  ce  o  •*  o  ■<»•  ?i  I-      rs 


o  ^5  55  CJ  O!  ■ 


Ci  05  CO  rt  O  -^  C"!  I 


r-irim'>tmoo-*'-: 


W  00  IT)  O  00 -^  00  t^  If-         '-'         X 


—I  r-l  N  M  1-1  >-l 


I-  I-  5D  ^  l^  rt  L^  «  !3  : 

00r50COQ0Wr-lf-(00S 


inOr-IC4'-l'^*0«0r^?0 


s  'S 


5  I 
e   « 


O    >; 


•a  2-^ 

•-    o   e 
o    S    E 

2      «     M 

•r  *  " 


,  V  'eau)sioj^ 


•piOB  "soqj 


•OK 


ro— ^oaoocs<ot^coc-i      — 


csat-ffjMOoojat-'.- 

OOr-CCWfOrHS^*-' 


ct       -^  ^3       krt       -1*1  o  r^ 
S  »  M  o  IC  00  ?a  I-  M  M 


t^OQOOOQOOsmOOC 


—  j^  r:  •"M--,  »  c-  «  s>  o 


^    3 


09    o  ^ 


a  « 


16  rZ/f    Fn-fUUij    of  fhr    Jjind. 

The  tables  reveal  the  fact  that  even  the  poorer 
soils  have  an  abundance  of  plant -food  for  several 
crops;  while  the  richer  soils  in  some  cases  have  suf- 
ficient for  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  «rops  of 
wheat  or  maize.  The  average  of  thirty -four  analy- 
ses (Table  1.)  gives  to  each  acre  of  land,  eight  in<'hes 
deep,  3,217  pounds  of  nitrogen,  3,936  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  17,597  i)oun<ls  of  potash,  and 
this  does  not  include  that  which  is  contained  in 
the  stones,  gravel  and  sand  of  the  soil  which  will 
not  pass  through  meshes  of  %  millimeter  (1-50  of 
an  inch),  which,  l)y  weathering  and  tillage,  slowly 
give  up  their    valuable    constituents. 

Some  plats  at  Cornell  University  grew,  in  189."), 
6,967.8  pounds  of  dry  matter  jht  acre  of  maize  and 
stalks  in  hills,  equal  to  31,600  pounds  of  green  material 
<'ontaining  77.95  per  cent  of  water  ;  and  from  other 
l)lats  were  harvested  26, (XX)  i)ounds  per  acre  of  green 
oats  and  peas  in  1896,  containing  7o  per  cent  of 
water.  Samples  of  the  soil  from  one  of  the  plats, 
which  grew  the  corn  in  1895  and  the  oats  and  peas 
in  1896,  were  taken  July  10,  1896,  to  determine  the 
proportion  which  would  pass  through  meshes  of  1-18 
of  an  inch,  the  amount  of  moisture,  the  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  soil,  the  comijosition  of  tiie  soil  which 
passed  through  the  sicvr.  the  proportion  of  pebbles 
which  would  not  pass  thiough,  and  also  the  composi- 
tion of  the  rejected  portion  (the  pebbles  and  stones), 
which  was  finely  i)owdered  by  mechanical  means  and 
then  separately  analyzed.  The  resxilts  obtained  are 
iiJti    follows  : 


Composition   of  a    Gravelly    Soil.  17 

TABLE   IV. 

Analysis  of  the  samples. 

Weight  of  soil  per  acre  to  the  depth  of  one  foot 2,082.5  ton* 

"         "  the  moisture 172.       " 

Per  cent  original  matter  passed  through  the  sieve 56.79    % 

"       "           "            "        not  passed  through  the  sieve . .  41.85 

"       '•      loss 1.36 

"       •■      nitrogen  in  the  line  material .13 

"       '•      phosphoric  acid  in  tlie  fine  material .16 

"       "      potash  in  the  fine  material .51 

TABLE   V. 

Amounts  calculated  per  acre  one  foot  deep. 
In  fine    viaterhil. 

Nitrogen 3,074.9  lbs 

Phosphoric  acid 3,784.5    " 

Potash 12,063.      " 

In  gravel. 

Phosphoric  acid 4,009.    lbs. 

Potash 11,329.8    " 

Per  cent  ])h()sphoric  acid  in  gravel .23  % 

"       "     ]iotasli  in  gravel .65  *' 

Fine  material  and  gravel. 

Nitrogen  3,074.9  lbs. 

Phosphoric  acid 7,793.5    " 

Potash 23,392.8    " 

How  much  of  this  was  soluble,  and  how  much 
available,  is  not  known. 

The  ten  analyses  of  subsoils  (Table  III.)  give  an 
average  of  4,069  pounds  of  nitrogen,  1,816  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  6,843  pounds  of  potash  in  the 
first  eight  inches  of  subsoil.  So  far  as  the  averages 
are  concerned  we  have  accurate  data,  but  in  making 
computations  per  acre  there  must  be  an  element  of 
error,  since  the  soil  w^as  not  w^eighed.  From  approx- 
imate determinations,  however,  it  is  estimated  that 
c 


18  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

ordinary  soil  weighs  per  acre,  one  foot  deep,  about 
1,800   tons,  or  1,200  tons  eight   inches  deep. 

In  trying  to  discover  how  much  plant -food  there 
is  in  an  acre,  account  must  also  be  taken  of  it« 
availability.  It  is  well  known  that  no  soil  can  be 
entirely  exhausted,  yet  it  is  equally  well  known  that 
soils  may  produce  well  and  still  carry  comparatively 
little  plant -food.  In  the  preceding  tables,  there  is 
found  in  some  instances  as  high  as  H,(KK)  pounds  of 
nitrogen  per  acre  in  eight  inches  of  surface  soil,  and 
6,000  pounds  in  the  subsoil,  and  4,000  to  5,000 
pounds  are  not  uncommon.  The  phosphoric  acid 
reaches,  in  one  instance,  10,000  pounds  in  the  surface 
soil  and  3,000  pounds  in  the  subsoil.  The  potash  in 
the  surface  soil  in  a  few  cases  (Nos.  18.  20  and  28, 
Table  I.),  is  upwards  of  40,0(K)  pounds;  in  Table  II. 
it  rises  to  upwards  of  50,0{K)  i)ounds.  or  2.08  per 
cent,  while  in  the  subsoil,  Table  III.,  it  is  21.000 
pounds.  In  the  soils  selected  (Ta])le  I.),  the  average 
amount  of  potash  in  the  tirst  eight  inches  is  5% 
times  as  much  as  the  nitrogen,  and  4X  times  as 
much  as  the  phosphoric  acid.  The  average  of  the 
fifteen  analyses.  Table  II.,  shows  .">  times  as  much 
potash  as  nitrogen  and  1.81  times  as  much  phosphoric 
acid  as  nitrogen. 

The  subsoil  is  also  rich  in  plant- food,  but  the 
material  is  not  so  available  as  that  in  the  surface 
soil.  By  superior  tillage,  and  by  growing  tap -rooted 
and  leguminous  plants,  vast  amounts  of  this  dormant 
plant -food,  uselessly  carried  in  the  subsoil  from  year 
to    year,  can    be  utilized;    it  is  not  best,    however,  to 


Potential    Plant -food  per    Arn\  10 

reduce  the  amount  to  a  low  standard  in  the  surface 
Boil,  since  it  is  good  economy  to  have  a  reserve  for 
unusual   conditions. 

This  vast  store  of  plant-food  is  the  farmer's  stock 
m  trade,  the  bank  upon  which  he  may  draw.  Its 
value  can  never  be  accuratelj-  determined,  since  a 
part  of  the  plant -food  is  not  available,  and  since 
the  power  of  the  plant  to  secure  that  which  is  avail- 
able depends  upon  many  conditions,  such  as  the 
correct  preparation  of  the  land,  the  kind  of  crops 
raised,  the  relative  amounts  of  the  various  required 
constituents,  and  the  amount  of  moisture  present. 
The  table  is  interesting,  since  from  it  can  be  com- 
puted approximately  what  the  same  amounts  of  avail- 
able plant -food  would  cost  if  purchased  in  the  form 
of  commerical  fertilizers.  It  indicates  and  emphasizes 
how  vast  is  nature's  storehouse,  and  suggests  that 
under  good  treatment  much  of  her  treasure  may 
be  utilized  without  endangering  the  productive  power 
of  the  land.  How  much  may  best  be  utilized  is 
largely  a  financial  question,  and  can  be  solved  only 
by  the  farmer  himself.  Those  who  are  most  expert 
in  their  methods,  in  recent  years  have  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  increased  production  on  good  land 
is  more  cheaply  secured  by  superior  tillage  than 
by   the   purchase   of    large    quantities   of   fertilizer. 

The  average  of  forty -nine  analyses  (Tables  I.  and 
II.)  show  3,053  pounds  of  nitrogen,  4,219  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  16,317  pounds  of  potash,  and 
5%  times  as  much  potash  as  nitrogen,  and  nearly  4 
times    as    much    potash    as   phosphoric   acid,  in   eight 


^0  Thfi    Fortuity    of  fhc    htud. 

inches  of  surface  soil,  per  acre.  Potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid  do  not  ordinarily  leach  out  of  the  soil 
to  any  apprecuahle  extent,  for  whenever  they  become 
soluble  they  pass  down  but  a  little  way  before  they 
find  and  unite  with  bases  which  arrest  their  further 
process,  while  nitrogen  tends  to  leach  out  in  the 
water  of  drainage.  While  it  is  not  good  economy-  to 
apply  excessive  amounts  of  any  kinds  of  plant -food, 
it  is  doubly  wasteful  in  the  case  of  nitrogen.  Fre- 
quent and  light  appli<;ations  of  nitrogen,  one  in 
the  fall  and  one  in  the  spring,  are  more  economical 
than    infrequent   and    liberal   applications. 

THK     FOOD     Hi:griHi;i)     MV     IMi.WTS. 

If  the  amounts  of  the  fertilizing  elements  set 
forth  in  the  tables  are  compared  with  the  compo- 
sition of  the  plants  to  be  grown,  no  (jertain  knowl- 
edge as  to  which  of  the  three  elements  should  be 
added  is  revealed,  since  the  one  which  appears  to 
be  the  least  might  l>e  the  most  available,  and  the 
one  which  is  present  in  greatest  quantity  might  be 
least  availal)le. 

It  is  believed  that  the  averages  set  forth  in  the 
above  tal)les  fairly  represent  motlerately  productive 
soils  outside  of  the  prairie  land  of  the  middle  west 
and  the  semi -arid  or  arid  lands  of  the  extreme 
west.  The  Census  Report  for  1890  gives  the  average 
yield  of  wheat  for  the  United  States  at  slightly  less 
than  fourteen  bushels  i)er  acre.  Allowing  that  two 
pounds    of    straw    are     produced    for    every    pound    of 


Fertilizers   vs.  Natural   Resources.  2f 

grain,  and  taking  the  average  analysis  of  wheat  and 
straw,  the  following  amounts  of  plant -food  are  re- 
moved  from   each   acre  : 

TABLE    VI. 

Plant-fdod  in  a  wheat  crop. 

Nitrogen 29.73  lbs. 

Phosphoric  acid 9.49    " 

Potash 13.69    " 

Comparing  these  amounts  with  the  average  con- 
tained in  the  soil,  and  considering  the  yield  of  wheat 
per  acre,  which  is  only  two-fifths  of  what  is  secured 
l)y  large  numbers  of  farmers,  we  are  led  to  wonder 
what  factors  have  entered  into  wheat  culture  to  pro- 
duce such  a  paucity  of  yield  in  the  presence  of  such 
vast  stores  of  potential  plant -food! 

It  would  require  seventy -five  tons  of  commercial 
fertilizer,  containing  approximately  2  per  cent  of  ni- 
trogen, 2.75  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  11 
per  cent  of  potash,  to  furnish  as  much  plant -food  per 
acre  as  the  analyses  show  to  be  present  in  each  acre, 
in  a  potential  form,  on  an  average,  in  forty-nine 
soils,  after  the  land  has  been  cropped  half  a  century, 
and  half  as  much  more  to  equal  that  in  the  first 
eight  inches  of  subsoil.  The  question  arises,  as  it 
will  often  arise  in  the  discussions  which  follow,  how 
far  tillage  can  be  carried,  and  to  what  extent  cover 
crops  can  be  used,  to  make  these  vast,  natural,  ever- 
present  resources  of  plant  growth  economically  availa- 
ble. No  one  can  even  partially  answer  the  question, 
except  he  asks  the  soil  often  and  intelligently,  and 
then  modifiCvS  the  answer  to  suit  the  methods  and  the 


22  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

conditions  which  prevail  at  the  time  and  place  where 
the  question   is  asked. 

The  average  wheat  crop  removes  but  nine  and 
one -half  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  per  acre.  Why 
is  it  not  able  to  remove  thirty -eight  pounds  and  pro- 
duce fifty -six  bushels  of  wheat,  when  the  first  sixteen 
inches  of  the  fine  particles  of  surface  soil  contain, 
potentially,  on  the  average,  7,122  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 6,035  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  23,160 
pounds  of  potash  per  acre  ?  Are  the  meager  results 
due  to  lack  of  availability  of  these  elements,  or  to 
lack  of  inherited  power  in  the  plant,  or  to  imperfect 
physical  soil  conditions,  or  to  insufficient  moisture,  or 
to  all  combined  ?  Who  can  solve  .so  difficult  a 
problem ! 

Nearly  all  the  inorganic  constituents  found  in  the 
ash  of  plants  must  be  present  in  the  soil,  and  in 
such  forms  that  they  may  be  set  free  by  the  action 
of  the  living  roots.  Some  of  the  constituents,  as 
salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  carbon,  and  others  are  not 
necessary  to  productive  soils  ;  plants  grow  without 
the  former,  and  can  procure  the  latter  from  the  at- 
mosphere. Their  presence  is  not  necessary,  so  far 
as  growth  is  concerned,  except  as  they  may  act 
beneficially  on  the  texture,  the  moisture,  or  the  or- 
ganic   or    inorganic    substances. 

No  certain  information  as  to  what  amounts  or 
proportions  of  the  mineral  constituents  of  plants  are 
best  is  found  by  analyzing  their  ash.  If  a  super- 
abundan(!e  of  one  element  is  present,  the  plant  may 
not   only  take  up  more  than  it   requires  for  maximum 


Analyses   not    Final.  23 

yield,  but  so  much  as  to  be  positively  injurious. 
Consider  the  case  cited  in  Table  II.,  No.  2,  where 
2,54  per  cent  of  potash  was  present.  If  even  a 
small  per  cent  of  this  were  available,  the  plant  might 
use  more  than  reqtlired  for  its  highest  development. 
On  the  other  hand,  plants,  like  animals,  may  thrive 
well  on  a  somewhat  limited  supply  of  one  or  more 
required  elements,  if  other  conditions  are  favorable. 
Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  seldom  or 
never  present  in  the  same  variety  or  species  of  plants 
in  the  same  proportions,  raised  in  different  fields. 
They  associate  themselves  in  the  living  organisms 
not  only  by  chemical  affinities,  but  they  are  governed 
by  many  agencies,  as  hereditary  forces  in  the  plant, 
moisture,  sunlight,  heat  and  cold,  presence  or  absence 
of  an  abundance  of  plant -food  and  the  ease  or  dif- 
ficulty of  securing  it.  Analyses  of  soils  and  plants 
sometimes  answer  questions  which  could  not  be 
reached  in  any  other  way,  and  usually  indicate 
the  direction  which  should  be  taken  to  reach  the 
most  satisf actor}-  results,  but  they  are  not  of  them- 
selves of  very  great  value,  in  most  cases.  As  the 
most  carefully  designed  piece  of  machinery  may  ut- 
terly fail  when  put  to  use,  so  the  most  analytical 
research  into  the  mysteries  of  soil  and  plants  may 
fail  when  applied,  because  other  forces  not  taken 
into    account    may  dominate    or    affect  the    results. 

The  previous  tables  show  how  variable  soils  may 
be,  and  yet  be  fairly  productive.  They  also  show 
how  wasteful  in  many  cases  must  be  the  applica- 
tion of  a  complete  fertilizer,  even  though  but  n  small 


24  The    FerfilHif    nf  ihr    Ixind. 

portion  of  the  i)riine  eleineuts  in  the  soil  are  avail- 
able. Those  who  study  tlic  tables  with  a  view  of 
receiving  aid  in  economical  production  of  crops  will 
discover  at  once  that,  liaving  the  facts  revealed  by 
the  chemist  for  a  basis,  the  real*  problems  must  be 
solved  by  putting  questions  to  the  soil  and  the  crops 
in  an  intelligent  way.  To  be  more  specific  :  hav- 
ing the  composition  of  soil  Xo.  10.  Tal)lc  I.,  an  ad- 
dition of  nitrogen  to  it  would  naturally  be  recom- 
mended, since  it  contains  less  tlian  half  as  much 
nitrogen,  but  a  third  more  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  than  the  average  of  thirty -four  soils  ;  if  the 
application  were  made,  and  no  increase  in  <*rop  fol- 
lowed, how  can  the  unexpected  i-csult  be  accounted 
for?  One  or  more  adverse  conditions  out  of  a  pos- 
sible score  may  have  been  present,  su<'h  as  lack  of 
moisture,  unsuitable  physical  conditions,  or  lack  of 
vital  power  in  the  plant  to  take  advantage  of  the 
increased  food  supply  ;  or  the  conditions  as  to  mois- 
ture, soil,  and  the  like,  might  have  been  of  the  best, 
and  yet  no  increased  yield  result  bccaused  the  nitro- 
gen already  in  the  soil  was  largely  available,  and 
more  would  he  superfluous  and  possibly  even  detri- 
mental. The  trouble  might  have  been,  in  the  sup- 
posed case,  a  lack  of  available  potash  or  phosphoric 
acid  The  plant  alone  can  tell  if  it  can  avail  it- 
self of  enough  of  the  mineral  elements  to  make  a 
good    use   of   the   additional    nitrogen. 

It  has  been  shown,  approximately,  what  amounts 
of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  or  may 
be    in    the    soil  ;    it    has    also    been    shown    that    it     is 


Plant -food   used   by   a    Cotton    Crop.  25 

difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  know  how  much  of  it 
may  be  available  for  plant  growth  under  given  con- 
ditions. It  is  now  in  order  to  point  out  what 
demands  are  likely  to  be  made  upon  the  soil  when 
some    of  the    more    common    crops    are    grown. 

The  last  census  (1890)  shows  that  20,175,270 
acres  of  cotton  were  grown  in  the  United  States  in 
1889,  that  it  produced  7,472,511  bales  of  477  pounds 
net,  or  176.67  pounds  per  acre,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  for  each  pound  of  lint  two  pounds  of  seed  are 
grown,  or  353.34  pounds  per  acre.  The  following 
table  gives  the  composition  in  per(^entages,  and  the 
total  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
in  the  seed  and  lint  per  acre  of  the  average  crop. 
Since  the  balance  of  the  plant  is  not  removed  from 
the   land,  it   may   be    ignored   in    this   connection : 


TABLE    V 

11. 

Analysis   of 

cotton. 

Nitrogen,  lbs. 

Phos.  acid,  lbs. 

Potash,  lbs. 

Seed  (353.34  lbs.) 

.   3.07??,    10.85 

1.019%    3.6 

1.16  %    4.10 

Lint  (176.67  lbs.). 

.     .28  %       .49 

.066  %      .12 

.637%    1.13 

11.34  3.72  .5.23 

A  good  crop  of  cotton,  such  as  is  raised  on  well 
cultivated  and  fertile  land,  is  one  bale  per  acre,  or 
2%  times  the  average  yield,  and  therefore  upon  the 
better  lands  a  draft  is  made  of  28.35  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  9.30  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  13.07 
pounds  of  potash  by  each  annual  crop.  This  is  not 
a  large  demand,  but  if  continued  through  a  series  of 
years  without  a  rotation  of   tap -rooted  or   leguminous 


26  Th«    Fertility    of  the    Ijnnd. 

plants,  the  readily  available  plant-food  may  soon  fall 
to  the  point  at  which  profitable  cultivation  ceases. 

The  unsatisfactory  production  and  the  unhealthy 
condition  of  many  orchards  which  are  mowed  or 
pastured  in  central  and  western  New  York  led  natu- 
rally to  the  question  :  What  demands  have  been  or 
are  likely  to  be  made  on  the  land  by  apple  culture  ? 
Investigations  conducted  with  the  view  of  answering 
the  questions  must  of  necessity  give  only  approxi- 
mately correct  data.  The  following  tables,*  which 
give  the  results  in  brief  of  two  years'  work  will,  it 
is  believed,  be  of  value,  notwithstanding  it  is  assumed 
that  all  of  the  trees  in  an  acre  of  orchard  are  of 
the  same  size,  fruitfulness  and  character  as  those 
weighed  and  analyzed.  Assuming  that  thirty -five 
trees  (one  acre)  would  bear,  thirteen  years  from  set- 
ting, five  bushels  of  apples  yearly  per  tree  for  the 
next  five  years,  and  ten  bushels  for  the  next  suc- 
ceeding five  years,  and  fifteen  bushels  yearly  dur- 
ing the  next  ten  years  ;  and  also  assuming  that  the 
proportion  of  leaves  to  fruit  was  the  same  as  found 
in  the  samples,  and  that  the  apples  and  leaves  were 
all  removed,  the  following   results   are  reached: 

TABLB    VIII. 

Materials  uxrd  and  removed  from  an  arre  by  a  hearing 
apple  orchard    in  firenti/  year.*. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.       Phos.  acid.  lbs.  Potash,  lbs 

Apples 498.6                     38.2.')  T28.5.'5 

Leaves 456.7.^.                  126.  441 . 

Trees  (35)  283.1.')                  107.4.'.  264.25 

1,238..50  271.70  J. 433.80 

'Bulletin  1U3.   rornall   g;(p«riment  Statiou, 


.Food   Removed   hy    Trees   and   Maize.  27 

Some  of  the  leaves  remain  on  the  ground  where 
they  fall,  but  the  greater  portion  is  blown  off  the 
land  which  produced  them.  When  the  orchards  are 
closely  pastured  or  mowed,  it  is  probable  that  the  fer- 
tility carried  off  by  pasturing  or  mowing  equals  that 
restored  to  the  land  by  the  leaves  which  remain;  if 
so,  the  table  would  be  approximately  correct  as  to 
the  total  amounts  of  plant -food  taken  from  the 
soil. 

Foregoing  tables  show  that  an  average  soil 
(Table  II.)  has  potential  nitrogen  sufficient  for  32, 
phosphoric  acid  for  129,  and  potash  for  240  crops  of 
maize  of  50  bushels  per  acre.  The  average  crop  of 
1889  was   29.44   bushels  per  acre. 

The  table  gives  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  in  some  of  the  leading  crops 
computed  on  the  average  yield  per  acre,  as  given  by 
the  census   of    1890: 

TABLE    IX. 

Retnoved  b;/  one  maize  crop  of  fifty  bushels. 

Xitrogen,  lbs,       Phos.  acid,  lbs.  Potash,  lbs. 

Maize  (3,000  lbs, ). .     .54,6  21.  12 

Stover  /  4,000  lbs.).,     41.6  11.6  .56 

96,2  32.6  68 

TABLE   X, 

Maize,  29.44  bushels  per  acre. 


Nitrogen,  lbs. 

Phos,  acid,  lbs 

Potash,  lbs. 

Grain  (1,766  lbs.).. . .  32.14 

12.36 

7.06 

Stover  (4,000  lbs.)...  41.6 

11.6 

56. 

73,74  23.96  63.06 


28  The    FertHifif    of   tin-    Ijund. 

Wheat,  l3.i)')  bimhels  per  acre. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.       Phos.  acid.  Ibn.  PotsHli.  1I>k. 

Grain  (837  lbs.) 19.75  7.44  .'i.l 

Straw  (L'.riOO  ;l.s.)  ...    i;j.57  2.76  ll.7:i 


3:i..T2  10.20  Ifi.SH 

liarley,  2i.:t'}  bimliel.i  ptr  acre. 

KitroKen.  lbs.       Phos.  aoid,  lbs.  Potaxh.  lbs 
iiraiii  (I,l(i7  lbs.)  ...   17. 02                      9.21  .l.ti 

Straw  (2.:i()0  Ibs.i...   .-{O.l.'l  6.9  4«.()7 


47.7.5  Hi.  11  53.67 

Outs,  28.57  hiisliil.i  jitr  arri\ 

NMtroKen,  lbs.       Phos.  acid,  lbs.  Potash,  lb> 

(Train  (914  lbs.  I 18.82  7.49  5.(;(! 

Straw  (2.400  lbs.)...    14.88  4.8  29.70 


33.70  12.29  .{5.42 


liny,  J. 26"  tons  )ur  <t<-ri 


NitroKoii,  lbs.       Plios.  lu-id,  lbs.  Potasli.  lb>. 

Hay  (2.:)20  ll)si   :{.">..").•{  ti.8  :19 

The  total  of  the  three  element.s  i-einoved  from  an 
sicre  by  the  maize,  as  shown  l>y  Table  X.,  is  160.7(5 
l)ounds,  by  the  wheat  60.35  pounds,  by  the  barley 
117.53  pounds,  and  by  the  oats  81.41  pounds,  esti- 
mating as  nearly  as  p()ssil)l('  the  amount  of  stalks 
and  straw  which  accompany  an  average  yield  of 
grain . 

The  iigurcs  show  at  a  glance  how  small  is  the 
amount  of  plant -food  used  to  sustain  the  average 
crop  of  the  United  States.  Small,  indeed,  must  be 
the  amount  used  by  crops  which  jjroduce  scarcely 
one- half  the  average.  It  should  be  noted  also,  how 
small    is   the   value   and  (|uantity  of   the  fertilizing  ele- 


Unhahmced    Soils.  29 

jnents    used    compared    with    those   contained    in    the 
average  of  the  forty -nine  soils  given    in  Table  II. 

EXTRANEOUS  SOURCES  OF  PLANT -FOOD. 

Having  shown  what  are  the  demands  that  are 
likely  to  be  made  upon  the  soil  by  a  few  of  the 
most  exacting  crops,  it  will  be  instructive  to  go  back 
and  study  Table  I.  more  carefully,  in  order  to  deter- 
mine what  elements,  if  any,  should  be  added.  Act- 
ing upon  the  hints  given  in  the  table,  it  could 
probabh'  be  discovered  approximately,  by  experimen- 
tation, how  much  of  the  plant -food  could  be  made 
profitably  available,  and  how  much  and  what  kinds 
should  be  added.  It  is  always  difficult  to  get 
clear  ideas  by  discussing  averages,  because  they  may 
be  made  from  combining  extremes.  A  study  of 
Table  I.  will  show  that  a  large  number  of  soils 
exceed  or  come  short  of  the  average  only  in  a 
slight  degree,  so  that  it  may  be  concluded  that 
these  averages  are  not  too  high  for  the  better 
agricultural    districts. 

While  some  of  the  soils  show  an  abundance  of 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  they  are  so  lacking  in 
nitrogen,  presumably  in  that  which  is  available,  that 
not  even  an  average  crop  could  be  raised.  In  some 
cases  the  soil  carries  vast  quantities  of  dormant  fer- 
tility in  only  one  of  the  three  forms,  and  this  may 
not  be  available  on  account  of  its  insolubility,  and 
hence  has  not  been  used,  or  because  one  or  two  other 
elements  are  lacking.      The  latter  condition  is  notably 


30  Thf  Ferfiliftf  of  the   iMiid. 

the  cast'  ill  Nos.  18,  20,  23  and  30,  Table  I.  These 
four  soils  each  contain  more  than  40,000  pounds  of 
potash  per  acre,  or  more  than  twice  as  much  as  the 
average,  wliile  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  17,  24,  28 
and  31  is  less  than  the  average;  yet  there  is,  indeed, 
enough  to  produce  a  crop  if  even  a  small  per  cent  of 
it  is  available.  These  soils  are  carrying  two  or  three 
times  as  much  potash  as  is  necessary  ;  economy  sug- 
gests that  use  be  made  of  it.  Since  there  is  so  large 
a  surplus,  probably  half  of  it  could  be  removed  with- 
out any  real  injury  to  the  productive  power  of  the 
land.  In  addition  to  this  vast  store,  the  subsoil  may 
be  drawn  upon,  for  in  some  cases  there  is  more,  and 
in  many  cases  nearly  as  much,  plant -food  in  it  as  in 
the  surface  soil.  Since  oxi)erimentati<)n  is  the  only 
method  l)y  which  it  can  be  determined  how  much 
can  be  made  available  by  deej)  and  tap -rooted  plants, 
and  by  deep  and  thorough  surface  tillage,  little  profit 
can  be  derived  from  discussing  this  phase  of  the 
subject  further,  though  it  is  probable  that  the  larger 
proportion  of  this  dormant  energy  can  be  made 
available.  When  it  is  realized  how  enormous  is  the 
amount  of  potential  energy  in  both  surface  soil  and 
subsoil,  it  should  lead  the  farmer  to  better  methods 
of  tillage,  and  to  put  systematic  questions  to  the 
land   which    he  cultivates. 

It  has  been  shown  what  is  or  is  likely  to  be  in 
the  soil,  and  what  has  been  or  may  be  taken  out  of 
it  ;  it  slill  remains  to  be  shown  what  is  added  to  the 
soil  from  outside  sources,  before  tillage  and  imple- 
ments  can   be    discussed   intelligently.        In   the   humid 


Sources    of    Plunt-Food .  ']1 

belt,  except  in  mountain  districts,  from  six  to  ten 
pounds  of  potential  nitrogen  are  brought  annually  to 
each  acre  of  land  by  the  rainfall.  To  this  must  be 
added  the  vast  stores  of  potential  nitrogen  secured 
through  leguminous  plants,  which  also  bring  to  the 
surface  considerable  quantities  of  mineral  raattei- 
which  would  not  otherwise  be  available  for  the  sur- 
face-rooted  plants.      (See  Chapter  XIV.) 

Having  these  two  sources,  which  may  be  called 
the  incidental  ones,  to  draw  upon,  there  is  still  the 
third, — barn  manures, — which  is  alwa.ys  present  to  n 
greater  or  less  extent  on  every  farm.  American 
writers  contend  that  barn  manures  are  relatively  rich 
in  nitrogen  and  poor  in  phosphoric  acid  and  potash, 
but  European  writers  usually  assert  the  reverse. 
This  apparent  contradiction  most  likely  arises  from 
different  methods  of  comparison.  If  the  comparison  is 
made  between  that  which  the  plant  still  requires,  aftei- 
having  made  use  of  the  stored  available  nitrogen  in 
the  soil  and  that  brought  to  it  by  the  rainfall  and 
the  growth  of  leguminous  plants,  then  barn  manures 
may  be  considered  relatively  high  in  nitrogen.  If  the 
comparison  is  made  between  manures  which  have 
been  exposed  in  open  yards  and  the  composition  of 
the  leading  crops,  then  they  may  be  .said  to  be  rela- 
tively poor   in   nitrogen.      (See   Chapter  VI.) 

If  mixed  husbandly  is  practiced,  and  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  crops  is  fed  to  stock  on  the  farm, 
'nearly  or  quite  half  of  the  plant -food  taken  from 
the  fields  by  the  crop  may  be  restored  to  it  from 
this   source   alone.       If,    in   addition   to  this,   clover   is 


32  Tf)^    Fertility    of   the    Ixind. 

used  in  a  short  rotation,  only  a  very  small  draft  for 
mineral  matter  will  be  made  on  the  original  surface 
soil,  and  in  many  cases  all  the  nitrogen  required  for 
ordinary  crops  may  be  supplied  from  the  three  sources 
named,  though  in  some  kinds  of  intensified  agricul- 
ture large  quantities,  not  only  of  mineral  matter  but 
nitrogen  as  well,  may  be  profitably  added  in  concen- 
trated fertilizers. 

If  Table  X.  is  considered  in  reference  to  mixed 
husbandry,  with  clover  in  the  rotation,  it  will  be 
seen  how  small  an  amount  of  plant -food  must  be 
taken  from  that  already  in  the  soil  to  produce  an 
average  crop  ;  and  when  considered  in  connection 
with  Tables  I.  to  III.,  the  demand  of  the  plant  upon 
the  stores  in  the  soil  is  comparatively  so  small  that 
it  is  a  wonder  that  larger  crops  titan  those  given 
in  Table  IX.  are  not  the^  rule  rather  tluin  the  e.\- 
•caption. 

'Hi wee'  the  =soil*iTtfW*the  subsolt" contain  such  storesi 
of*  poteii1»iar  fertility r"{!tld  since  t*ai)- rooted  legumiaous 
plants  bring  to  the  surface  abundl^if  quantities  of  ni- 
trogen with  some  mineral  matter,  and  since  many 
fields  receive  applications  of  farm  manure  from  time 
to  time,  some  far-reaching  cause  or  causes  must  be 
present  ever  tending  to  seriously  restrict  production. 
It  will  be  found  that  in  this  country  the  principal 
causes  of  low  yields  of  farm  crops  are  imperfect 
l)reparation  of  the  land,  poor  tillage  and  hence  a  lack 
of  available  plant -food,  and  insufficient  moisture 
during  some  portion  of  the  i)lant's   life. 

A  hasty   survey  of    the    land  having  been  made,    it 


Cause   of  Low   Average    Yields.  33 

is  found  that  the  low  average  yields  are  not  usually 
due  to  lack  of  potential  plant -food  in  the  soil,  and 
that  most  agricultural  plants  never  have  full  oppor- 
tunity to  come  to  their  best  estate,  as  the  meager 
average  yield  and  the  inferior  quality  of  many  of  the 
products  of  the  farm  abundantly  prove.  The  lack  of 
appreciation  and  utilization  of  nature's  storehouse  and 
laws  suggests  a  discussion  of  the  plow,  which  now 
follows. 


r» 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE   EVOLUTION  OF  THE   PLOW. 

The  following  history  and  illustrations  are  given 
that  the  reader  may  carefully  study  tlie  growth  and 
improvement  of  implements  for  tilling  the  earili. 
thereby  arriving  at  the  true  principles  and  most 
economical  methods  which  should  obtain  when  that 
most  laborious  and  expensive  operation  of  agriculture. 
— preparation  of  the  land  for  (•roi)s. —  is  undertaken. 
The  history  is  of  necessity  far  from  eomi)lete,  and 
full  credit  cannot  be  given  to  all  who  may  deserve  it. 
nor  can  we  arrive,  in  so  brief  a  sketch,  at  full  histor- 
ical   agreement    as    to   priority   of    imiwovement. 

DEVELOPMENT     OF    THE     PLOW     IN     TUK     OLD     WORLD. 

Sculptures  on  ancient  monuments,  dating  back 
4,000   years    or    more,    give    conclusive    evidence    that 

Note. — The  foUowini:  definitions  of  terms  used  in  descriMiiK  iilows  iu:iy 
lie  useful  to  tliose  wlio   liave  little   ft<'quaintiin<'e    with   the  subject  : 

liridle.  The  clevis  at  the  ernl  of  the  plow  lietiiii,  for  rontroUiiii;  the  dejiili 
and   width   of  the  furrow 

Colter  or  Cxitter.  A  steel-edued  circular  or  knife-like  lilade  alliiched  lo 
the  beam,  for  severing  the  i)eri>eudiculur  side  of  the  furrow  from  the  ud- 
joining   land. 

Lock  Coltrr.  One  which  is  united  by  the  back  of  its  i>oint  with  tlie  jwiut 
of  the  share. 

LandtUdt.    That  part  of  the  plow  on  the  opposite  side  from  the  moldboard. 

Share  or  Point.  A  broH<i  steel  or  iron  plate  attached  to  the  lower  side  of  the 
moldboard,  for  scverini;  the  furrow  slice  horizontally. 

Jointer  or  Skim  I'loiv.  A  small  steel  or  iron  attachment  )iy  which  a  min- 
iature furrow   is  cut   and   turned  in   advance  of  the  plow.     (See  Fijcs.  14.  lo.  i 

134) 


Early    Forois  of  Ploicfi. 


3.- 


the   plow  was    then    in  common  use,  and    it  probably 
had  been  used   for  preparing  the  land   for  plants  een- 


Fig.    1.     One  of  tlie  earliest  types  of  plow. 

turies  before.  It  is  believed  by  Bible  critics  that  the 
Book  of  Job  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  writings  of 
the  Old  Testament,  yet  the  first  chapter  alludes  to  the 
plow  :  "  The  oxen  were  plowing  and  the  asses  feed- 
ing beside  them." 

A   few   illustrations   will  serve    to    show   the  essen- 
tial  characters   of   the    types   of   primitive    plows : 


East  Indian  plow. 


Fig.    1    is    from    an    ancient    monument    in    Asia 
Minor,     and    represents     one    of    the    most    primitive 


36 


Thf    Fffiillfff    (if  thf    Tjnnd. 


tonus    of    iiiiph'iiients    of    tiliaf^f,     beiii}^     sijiiplv     the 
crrooked    braiuOi    of    a    tree,   with   the   exception   of  the 


Fiif.  3.      Etyptian  plow. 

hraee  »,  and  tlie  i)iMs  near  the  end  of  the  beam, 
whieh  were  nsed  for  attacliin^j  tlie  plow  to  the  yoke. 
Fig.  2,  from  a  model  of  an  East  Indian  i)low  in  the 
Agrienltnral  Mnsenm  of  Cornell  University,  is  said  to 
be  the  only  plow  still  nsed  in  some  parts  of  India. 
In    aneient    times    it    was    nsed    in    British  hnsbandry. 


Fig.  4.     Eleventli  rentury  plow. 

and  a|>pears  to  have  ])efn   the  first    eflFort   to  cover  the 
point  with  iron.        Fig.   '.\  sh«)ws  a  jjIow  used  in  many 


A    Plow   Much    Used  in   France. 


37 


parts  of  Egypt  and  Mexico,  and  one  not  entirely  dis- 
carded at  the  present  day.  Fig.  4  illustrates  the  Eng 
lish   plow  of    the   eleventh   century,  used    in  the   time 


Fig.  5.    French  plow. 

of  William  the  Conqueror.  Fig.  5  represents  the 
form  of  plow  that  is  still  in  use  in  many  parts  of 
France.  Although  the  improved  plow  has  l)een  in- 
troduced into  the  better  agricultural  districts  of 
France,  plows  with  some  form  of  trucks  i)laced  under 
the  beam,  which  is  set  at  an  acute  angle,  are  not  un- 
common.    The  attachment  of  the  beam  near  the  colter 


Fig.  6.    Early  Dutch  plow. 

by  a  chain  gives  great  flexibility.  Slightly  modified, 
this  method  of  attachment  would  appear  to  be  more 
scientific  than  the  one  in  common  use  in  America,  as 


38 


The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 


the  plowman  has  the  long  end  of  the  lever  ;  that  is, 
it  is  a  gi-eater  distance  from  the  standard  to  the  ends 
of  the  handles  than  from  the  standard  to  the  point 
at  which  the  team  is  attached. 

The  fnndamental  idea  of  our  present  plow  seems 
to  have  been  derived  largely  from  Holland.  Fig.  6  is 
a  cut  of  the  plow  used  in  Holland  at  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  introduced  into 
Yorkshire,  England,  and  became  popular   among   pro- 


Fic   7.     English  plow  of  last   century. 


gressive  farmers.  From  tins  time  on  the  improve- 
ment of  the  plow  was  rapid.  Fig.  7  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  Berkshire  plow  used  in  England  in  1730. 
and  highly  reconnuended  by  Jethro  Tull.  At  that 
date  Tull  had  already  made  a  careful  study  of  tlu^ 
science  of  tillage.  He  saw  that  agriculture  needed 
implements  to  divide  the  soil  more  perfectly,  not 
onlj'  before  the  seeds  were  sown,  but  afterwards.  He 
seems  to  have  comprehended  very  fully  the  needs  of 
English  agriculture,  and  although  he  made  many  mis- 
takes, he  still  did  a  wonderful  work  by  inventing 
the  drill,   practicing   horse -hoe   tillage,  and  by   cmpha- 


Importance  of   Thorough    Tillage.  39 

sizing  the  need  of  better  tillage  in  order  that  a  more 
economical  use  might  be  made  of  the  stored  elements 
in  the  soil.  A  principle  laid  down  by  him  was  that 
"  tillage,  and  tillage  alone,  will  create  and  supply 
tilt'  food  of  plants,  and  will,  in  most  cases,  render 
manure  wholly  unnecessary.  By  dung  we  are  limited 
to  the  quantity  of  it  we  can  secure,  which,  in  most 
cases,  is  too  scanty.  But  by  tillage  we  can  enlarge 
our  fields  of  subterranean  pasture  without  limitation, 
though  the  external  source  of  it  be  confined  within 
narrow  bounds.  Tillage  may  extend  the  earth's  in- 
ternal superficies  in  proportion  to  the  division  of  its 
parts,  and  as  division  is  infinite,  so  may  the  super- 
ficies be.  Every  time  the  earth  is  broken  by  any 
sort  of  tillage  or  division,  there  must  arise  some 
new  superficies  of  the  broken  parts  which  never  have 
l)een  opened  before  ;  for  when  the  parts  of  earth  are 
once  united  and  incorporated  together,  it  is  morally 
impossible  that  they  or  any  of  them  should  be 
broken  again  only  in  the  same  places  ;  for  to  do 
that,  such  parts  must  have  again  the  same  numerical 
figures  and  dimensions  they  had  before  such  break- 
ing, which,  even  by  an  infinite  division,  could  never 
be   likely  to  liappen.'"^ 

It  will  be  seen  how  close  and  accurate  Tull's 
reasoning  is  with  the  exception  of  two  clauses  :  one 
asserts  that  "  by  tillage  the  subterranean  pasture  can 
be  enlarged  without  limitation,"  and  the  other  that 
"  tillage,   and    tillage    alone,    will    create    and    supply 

*.Tethro  Tull,  The  Horse-hoeing  Husbandry.     (Published  by  William   Cob- 
bett,    T^ondoii,    1820.     Introd.   by  Win.   Cobbett.) 


40 


The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 


the  food  of  plants."  This  should,  of  course,  be 
modified,  for  pasturage  cannot  be  enlarged  indefinitely, 
nor  can  tillage  create  plant -food. 

By  his  drill  and  horse -hoe  methods,  TuU  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  twelve  wheat  crops  continuously  on 
the  same  land  without  manuring,  and  without  any 
marked  diminution  in  the  yield  per  acre.  Had  he 
studied  the  mechanical  forces  which  are  concerned  in 
the  minute  division  of  the  soil  by  the  plow  as  closely 
as  he  did  the  wants  of  the  plants  and  the  means  of 


^^^Q 


CAST  LOTHIAN  OR  SKALL-S  PLOW 

Fig.  8.     East    Lothian   Scotch   plow. 


supplying  them,  he  might  have  seen  that  the  Berk- 
shire plow  was  not  well  adapted  to  pulverizing  the 
soil  in  the  most  economical  manner.  In  order  to  fine 
soils  economically,  their  particles  should  be  made  to 
grind  each  other  by  attrition,  according  to  the  prin- 
ciple used  in  polishing  rough  castings.  It  has  re- 
cently been  found,  by  careful  experiments,  that  divid- 
ing the  soil  by  colters,  or  even  by  a  single  colter,  re- 
quires a  large  amount  of  force,  and  that  to  break  and 
crush  the  soil  by  concussion  or  attrition  is  the  most 
economical  way  of  pulverizing  it.  It  is,  therefore, 
no    wonder  that  the    Berkshire    plow   was   soon    super- 


Characteristics   of   European   Plows. 


41 


seded  by  others,  which  had  overhanging  moldboards 
and  a  single  colter  placed  close  to  the  standard  and 
shin  of  the  plow.  Tull  had  no  means  of  detennining 
the  loss  by  friction  dne  to  the  weight  of  the  plow- 
alone,  amounting  in  some  cases  to  30  per  cent  of   the 


Fig  9.     Midlothian  or  Ransome  plow. 


entire  draft  ;  nor  did  he,  apparently,  suspect  how 
greatly  the  draft  of  the  plow  was  increased  by  the 
added  colters. 

The  plow  of  East  Lothian,  Scotland,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8.  Some  of  its  distinctive  features  have  been 
retained  in  pai'ts  of  Europe  to  the  present  day.  Its 
extreme  length,  and  lack  of  width  and  twist,  indi- 
cate that  narrow,  straight  furrows  must  have  been 
then,  as  in  fact  they  still  are,  the  pride  of  the 
Scotch  plowman.  Tull,  in  his  zeal  to  fine  the  soil. 
overlooked  the  unscientific  and  expensive  means  by 
which    it   was   accomplished.       The    British   plowman. 


42  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

in  liis  zeal  for  straight  furrows  and  easy  draft, 
overlooked  pulverization  of  the  furrow,  which  is  or 
should  be  the  chief  object  of  plowing.  Fig.  1) 
illustrates  the  Midlothian  plow,  modified  and  im- 
proved. Plows  similar  to  this  are  still  in  com- 
mon use  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain.  The  long 
wedge  shape  is  still  preserved.  The  skim  or  jointer 
plow,  so  successfully  used  in  the  United  States  in 
a  few  localities,  is  an  adaptation  of  this  type.  Such 
plows  are  adapted  only  to  land  free  from  stumps 
and  stones,  and  they  illustrate  the  English  idea  of 
laying  flat  furrows,  in  which  respect  the  English 
method  differs  radically  from  the  American,  which 
seeks  to  break  up  the  furrow  by  bold,  overhanging 
moldboards,  to  the  detriment  of  the  appearance  of 
the   plowed    land. 

All  of  the  foregoing  illustrations  show  that  until 
very  recently  the  effort  of  the  plow -maker  has  been 
directed  largely  towards  producing  an  implement  of 
light  draft  by  constructing  it  on  sharp  wedged  lines, 
with  little  reference  to  pulverizing  efficiency.  For 
the  most  part  he  ignored  the  draft  due  to  the 
weight  of  the  plow,  and  also  the  economy  of  the 
bold,  overhanging  moldboard,  whereby  the  furrow  is 
broken  and  robbed  of  its  tenacity  and  left  in  a  cor- 
rugated condition,  so  that  the  other  implements  of 
tillage  may  do  their  work  effectively.  Observation 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  in  England  twice  as 
much  surface  tillage  is  given  in  preparing  the  seed- 
bed as  in  America,  due.  without  doubt,  chiefly  to 
the    imperfect     principle    on     which     their    plows   are 


Improvements   in    the    Plow.  48 

constructed.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  the 
furrows  on  sod  ground  laid  as  flat  as  shown  in 
Fig.  16  (Chapter  III.,  page  65),  or  as  little  dis- 
turbed by  the  action  of  the  moldboard  as  in  Fig.  17 
(page  66).  It  is  quite  evident  that  the  plow  has 
developed  in  England  and  America  on  xevy  dif- 
ferent lines. 

In  1785  Robert  Ransome,  of  Ipswich,  England, 
succeeded  in  making  plowshares  of  cast  iron.  This 
was  a  great  step  in  advance  of  the  old  method,  by 
which  each  share  was  formed  according  to  the  skill 
of  the  blacksmith.  Until  this  time,  most  of  the 
improvements  of  the  plow  were  lost  at  the  death  of 
the  genius  who  had  invented  them.  Arthur  Young 
writes  in  his  Agricultural  Report  of  Suffolk,  that 
"a  very  ingenious  blacksmith  of  the  name  of  Brand 
made  a  plow  of  iron,"  and  adds  that  "there  is  no 
other  in  the  kingdom  equal  to  it  ;"  but  this  valuable 
improvement  passed  aw^ay  wdth  the  inventor.  In 
1803,  Ransome  discovered  and  patented  a  method  for 
case-hardening  or  chilling  shares.  The  ordinary  cast 
share,  unhardened,  became  quickly  blunted  and,  since 
it  could  not  be  sharpened,  had  to  be  exchanged  for 
a  new  one.  The  case-hardening  of  about  one -six- 
teenth of  an  inch  on  the  lower  surface  preserved  to 
a  considerable  extent  the  sharp  edge,  since  the 
upper  and  softer  portion  of  the  share  wore  away 
faster  than  the  lower.  The  bridle  or  clevis  at  the 
end  of  the  beam,  to  control  the  width  and  depth  of 
the  furrow,  had  already    been  invented. 


44  The    FertiWy    of  the    Land. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE     PLOW     IN-  AMERICA. 

Among  the  stumps  and  stones  of  New  England, 
and  even  in  the  Middle  states,  the  long  English 
plow  could  not  be  used  to  advantage.  While  we 
brought  from  England  and  Holland,  to  a  great  extent, 
our  methods  of  living,  tools,  styles  of  arohitecture. 
and   our   government,  the   foreign   idea   of  plows   and 


Fig.   10.      Anoient   Yankee  plow. 

plowing  had  to  be  radically  modified.  Fig.  10  repre- 
sents a  plow  in  the  Agricultural  Museum  of  Cornell 
University,  which  was  used  in  Connecticut  over  one 
hundred  years  ago.  The  moldboard  is  formed  from  a 
section  of  a  winding  tree,  the  grain  of  the  timber  run- 
ning as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  the  move- 
ment of  the  furrow.  It  was  protected  by  nailing 
upon  it  refuse  band-iron,  wornout  horse  shoes,  and 
old  hoes.  A  share  and  lock -colter  were  provided, 
the  latter  being  necessary  to  prevent  the  roots  from 
passing  backward  to  the  standard  of  the  plow  be- 
fore they  were  cut  or  broken  by  the  colter.  Here 
we    have,  as   compared    with    the    European    plow,  the 


Americav    Improvers   of  the    Plow.  45 

other  extreme,  the  beam  and  moldboard  short  and 
the  handles  erect,  enabling  the  plowman  to  more 
easily  plow  around  obstructions,  and  to  till  the  land 
to  the  very  roots  of  the  stumps.  The  point  of  the 
share  was  bent  sharply  downward  to  prevent  it  from 
rising  to  the  surface  ;  and,  therefore,  wherever  the 
soil  was  fairly  free  from  roots  and  stones  it  would 
run  too  deep.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  a  wooden 
shoe  was  placed  near  the  end  of  the  beam,  to 
govern  the  depth  of  the  furrow  better  than  a  wheel 
would  on  rough  land.  The  length  of  the  beam  of 
the  modern  American  plow  is  not  much  greater  than 
that  shown  in  Fig.  10,  although  nearly  all  plows 
are  now  used  in  lands  free  from  stumps  and  large 
stones. 

In  1780,  Thomas  Jefferson,  American  ambassador 
to  France,  made  a  study  of  the  plows  used  at  Nancy. 
He  makes  the  following  note  :  "Oxen  plow  here 
with  collars  and  hames.  The  awkward  figure  of  the 
moldboard  leads  one  to  consider  what  should  be 
its  form."  In  1793,  Jefferson  put  his  theory  of  cone- 
shaped  moldboards  to  a  test  at  Albemarle,  Bed- 
ford county,  Virginia.  The  lines  of  his  plow  were 
formed  on  what  appear  to  be  true  mathematical 
principles,  but  it  failed  to  accomplish  all  that  was 
desired,  for  it  neither  turned  the  furrow  well  nor 
pulverized   the    soil    satisfactorily. 

The  first  American  after  Thomas  Jefferson  who 
interested  himself  in  a  large  way  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  plow  was  a  farmer,  Charles  Newbold, 
of   Burlington,  N.   J.      He   made   the    first    American 


46  The    FertUifif    of   the    Land. 

cast-iron  plow,  and  took  out  letters  patent  for  the 
same  on  June  26,  1797.  Prejudice  against  this  "new- 
fangled "  plow  was  so  great  that  it  did  not  come  int<i 
general  use,  the  farmers  l)elieviug  that  cast-iron 
plows  poisoned  the  land  and  caused  weeds  to  grow. 
The  latter  accusation  was  certainly  true,  for  weeds 
respond  to  improved  cultivation  quite  as  readily  as 
the  better  cultivated  plants  do.  Newbold  later  substi- 
tuted a  wrought- iron  share  for  the  cast  one,  but  it 
did  not  overcome  the  early  prejudice  which  had  been 
formed   against    his  plow.* 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture,  Arts,  and 
Manufactures.  New  York,  it  appears  that  in  1794 
Colonel  John  Smith  produced  a  model  of  a  cast-iron 
plowshare  that  "should  save  expense  in  husbandry," 
which  he  proposed  to  substitute  for  the  conimon 
forged  wrought  share  then  in  use.  Later  he  mod- 
ified his  cast  share  by  riveting  to  it  a  false 
wrought -iron  or  steel  edge.  The  object  of  this 
was  to  make  it  (iapable  of  being  sharpened  from 
time  to  time,  and  thereby  oln'inte  the  renewal  of 
the    entire  share  when    dull. 

In  1807  David  Peacock,  of  New  Jersey,  took  out 
patents  on  au  improved  plow  which  came  to  })e 
very  valuable,  and  as  the  prejudice  against  the  cast 
plow  had  measurably  passed  away,  it  came  into  com- 
mon use.  It  is  probable  that  it  was  very  similar 
to   Mr.   Newbold's    plow,    since  he  received    from    Pea- 

•  Kor   ilctniU  and    spefificiitions   of    various    plows,  see  "  L'tica    Plow    Trial,'' 
1*17.    Tritus.  X.  V.  .\ifric'.  .Soo.  xivii.,  Purt  1. 


Adjuiiftnerif   of  the    Moldboard.  47 

cock    $1,500   as    a   satisfaction    for    an     infringement 
claim. 

In  1820  Timothy  Pickering,  who  took  a  very 
active  interest  in  the  improvement  of  the  plow,  says 
ill  a  letter  to  Dr.  Coventry:  "My  opinion  is  that 
the  straight  lines  are  essential  to  the  form  of  the 
moldboard  of  the  least  resistance."  Here,  again, 
ease  of  draft  instead  of  efficiency  of  the  work  done 
by  the    plow  is    made  foremost. 

The  fact  that  a  plow  having  a  correct  form  might 
be  made  to  accomplish  a  large  part  of  the  work  of 
fining  the  soil  had  not  yet  attracted  attention  either 
in  Europe  or  America.  Effort  was  largely  directed 
to  forming  a  moldboard  that  would  turn  the  fur- 
row, and  when  one  had  been  constructed  that  fined 
the  soil  better  than  others,  it  was  discarded  if  the 
draft  chanced  to  be  a  little  more  than  that  of  the 
plows  in  use.  The  reasoning  was  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows: "In  adjusting  the  moldboard  of  the  plow, 
another  point  is  to  be  determined,  —  the  extent  of 
the  angle  which  the  essential  sti-aight  line  should 
form  Avith  the  bar  of  the  share  or  land -side  of  the 
plow,  for  the  smaller  this  angle  the  less  the  resist- 
ance at  entering  the  earth ;  but  if  the  angle  were 
to  be  very  small,  the  plow  must  have  gi-eat  length 
to  obtain  a  proper  breadth  of  furrow;  a>id  such  great 
length  would  proportionately  increase  the  quantity  of 
friction.'^  *  It  is  readily  seen  that  an  error  of  rea- 
soning has  crept  into  the  last  clause  of  the  quotation, 
for    friction    is     not     inei-eased     bv    lengthening     the 


■Report  of    the  "  Utica  Plow  Trial,  "  1867 


48  The    FertnUii    of  the    Ixind 

inoldboard,  other  things  being  equal.  Supposing 
the  resistance  of  the  moldboard  to  be  represented 
by  100,  the  total  friction  will  not  be  increased  by 
distributing  it  over  a  larger  surface,  or  diminished 
by  confining  it  to  a  smaller  one.  It  is  true  that 
a  bold  moldboard  will  cause  more  friction  than  a 
straighter  one,  but  this  would  be  entirely  due  to 
the  greater  resistance  produced  by  the  bolder  wedge, 
and  not  to  the  fact  that  a  less  surface  presented 
itself  to  cutting  and  twisting  the  furrow -slice  ;  or, 
to  illustrate,  a  board  draws  as  easily  on  its  flat  side 
as  on  its  edge.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
amount  of  friction  is  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  surface  and  the  weight  independent  of  extent 
of  surface,  which  would  not  be  true  in  case  of  fluid 
friction. 

As  soon  as  the  cast  plow  was  an  assured  fact, 
the  next  effort  was  to  make  it  of  three  or  four 
interchangeable  parts,  tliat  it  might  be  easily  repaired. 
Numerous  patents  were  taken  out  for  minor  changes 
in  the  draft-rod,  clevis  and  wheel.  The  lock-colters 
became  common  in  the  wooded  districts,  and  were 
a  great  improvement  over  those  which  allowed  the 
roots  to  pass  back  of  the  colter  to  the  standard 
without  being  cut,  in  which  latter  case  the  plow  had 
to  be  relieved  by  severing  the  roots  with  an  ax. 

In  recent  years,  plow -makers  have  modified  the 
character  of  plows  somewhat  by  increasing  the  length 
of  the  share,  beam  and  handles,  and  by  placing 
the  handles  lower  and  at  a  less  acute  angle  than 
formerly.       Why    these   changes  did    not    come    about 


The    PJoir    Should    Five    the    kSoU. 


49 


sooner,  —  as  soon  as  the  fields  were  cleared  ol'  obstruc 
tions, —  it  it  difficult  to  understand,  for  they  give  bet- 
ter control  of   the  plow  than  the  shorter  construction, 
without    impairing    the    efficiency  of    the  moldboard. 

In  1839,  Samuel  Witherow  and  David  Pierce  saw 
the  need  of  a  plow  which  would  accomplish  in  a 
larger    degree    the    fining    of     the    soil.        They    say  : 


Fig.    11.     l):iiiicl    Wflistcrs    jilow, 

''Having  thus  fully  set  forth  the  nature  of  our  in- 
vention, and  shown  the  manner  in  which  we  carry 
the  same  into  operation,  what  we  claim  therein  is, 
the  giving  to  our  moldboard  the  segment  of  a  cy- 
cloid convexly  on  its  face  in  a  line  leading  from 
front  to  rear,  and  concavely  in  the  lines  of  the 
ascent  of  the  furrow -slice,  the  object  being  to  cause 
various  parts  of  the  furrow  to  move  with  unequal 
velocity.  The  main  object  is  to  pulverize  the  soil, 
and  the  only  way  in  which  it  can  be  effected  is 
by    bending    a    furrow -slice    on    a    curved    surface    so 


50  The    Fertility    of  thi'    Land. 

formed  that  it  shall  also  be  twisted  somewhat  in 
the  manner  of   a  screw." 

In  1836  or  1837,  Daniel  Webster  invented  a  plow 
capable  of  handling  a  furrow  twelve  to  fourteen 
inches  deep.  It  was  twelve  feet  long  from  })ridl(' 
to  the  tips  of  handles,  the  land -side  four  feet  long, 
and  the  bar  and  share  were  forged  together.  The 
wooden  moldboard  was  plated  with  strips  of  iron. 
and  had  a  breadth  at  the  heel  to  land -side  of 
eighteen  inches,  with  an  extreme  spread  at  the  rear 
of  twenty -seven  inches.  The  plow  was  provided  with 
a  lock -colter  and  a  wrought- iron  steel -edge  share. 
Four  yokes  of  oxen  were  required  to  draw  this  huge 
plow,  which  was  capable  of  turning  a  furrow  twelve 
inches  deep  and  two  feet  wide  in  the  old  pasture 
fields  which  had  become  partly  overrun  with  })ushes 
and  even  small  birch  trees.  In  later  years,  iron 
plows  similar  to  this  were  used  in  the  west  to  su))- 
due  the  hazel  border  which  fre<iuently  joined  the 
timber  belt  to  the  prairies.  These  plows  were  the 
fore-runners  of    the  great  "prairie  breaker." 

In  1843,  T.  I).  Burrell,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  en- 
deavored to  reduce  the  friction  of  the  land -side  by 
substituting  for  it  a  wheel.  This  attempt  has  been 
made  many  times  since,  but  has  not  been  successful, 
since  the  wheel  becomes  obstructed  and  immovable, 
and    is    then   not    so    good    as   the   ordinary  land-side. 

About  1860,  trench  plows  were  made,  but  they 
were  little  used  for  deep  tillage  ;  they  were  fairly 
well  adapted  for  digging  ditches,  but  they  have  gone 
out    of    use.       Most    farmers    do    l)ut    a    small    amount 


Trench    and    Suh.toil    Plan's.  51 

of  underdi*aining  eaeli  year,  and  it  is  found  to  be 
more  economical  to  use  the  common  plow  for  partly 
opening  the  trenches  than  to  keep  an  extra  one  for 
that   sole    purpose. 

A  little  prior  to  this  time,  there  was  a  general  dis- 
cussion as  to  the  depth  to  which  plowing  might  be 
profitably  carried,  which  led  to  placing  two  plows 
upon  one  beam.  The  first  plow  took  off  three  or 
four  inches  of  the  surface  soil  and  deposited  it  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  The  second  and  larger 
plow  was  set  to  run  six  or  seven  inches  deep,  and 
deposited  its  furrow  on  the  top  of  the  first  one. 
This  trench  plowing  was  not  only  expensive,  as  it 
required  great  power,  but  it  deposited  the  subsoil  on 
the  surface  and  the  vegetable  matter  at  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow,  a  state  of  affairs  which  often  resulted 
in  poor  crops  for  several  years,  or  until  the  inert 
matter  in  the  upturned  subsoil  coiild  be  set  free  by 
surface  tillage.  These  plows  have  never  come  into 
common   use. 

A  later  outcome  of  this  same  discussion  was  the 
subsoil  plow,  which  loosened  the  earth  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  furrow,  but  did  not  bring  it  to  the 
surface.  On  certain  lands  subsoiling  is  beneficial, 
but  it  was  soon  found  to  be  better  economy  to 
loosen  the  subsoil  by  underdrains  and  clover  than 
to  go  to  the  expense  of  loosening  it  every  few  years 
by  the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow.  These,  also,  to  a 
great  extent,  have  gone  out  of  use.  At  the  present 
time  an  effort  is  being  made  to  revive  them,  it 
being  contended    that  subsoiling    is  very  beneficial,   in 


52  The    Fertility   of  the    Ijand. 

that  it  enlarges  tlie  power  of  the  earth  to  store  up 
water,  thereby  mitigating  or  preventing  the  effect  of 
droughts.  This  contention  is  true  in  part,  but 
when  to  use  the  subsoil  plow  and  when  not  to  use 
it  are  matters  of  local  economy  and  expediency. 

PRAIRIE     PLOWS. 

The  first  western  emigrants,  who  settled  in  or  near 
the  belts  of  timber  at  the  verge  of  the  great  prairies, 
soon  found  that  the  open  prairies  were  easier  to  re- 
claim and  far  richer  than  the  fringe  of  wood  which 
bordered  upon  them.  Little  difficulty  was  expe- 
rienced in  subduing  the  tough  prairie  sod  with  the 
great  breaking-plows,  even  though  it  required  a 
strong  team,  for  oxen  and  steers  were  abundant  and 
cheap.  Ten  or  twelve  yokes  were  sometimes  at- 
tached to  one  plow,  the  team  being  driven  by  one 
man  on  foot  or  horseback.  A  well -broken  yoke 
of  cattle  was  placed  in  the  lead,  a  heavy  yoke  at 
the  beam,  and  the  balance  of  the  team  was  made 
up  of  unbroken  steers,  which  became  more  valuable 
from  week  to  wet'k  because  of  the  training  which 
they  received.  Most  of  these  plows  had  truck -wheels 
attaclied,  so  that  they  recjuired  no  holding.  They 
cut  a  furrow  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  wide 
and  about  two  inches  deep.  The  moldboards  were 
sometimes  formed  of  rods  of  iron,  and  were  set  at 
such  angles  as  would  kink  the  furrow  and  leave 
it  on  edge,  so  that  during  dry  weather  the  grass 
would    perish    for  want    of    moisture.       The    following 


The    Old- Time   '' Prairie -Breaker. ^^ 


53 


spring   the  ground   was   harrowed   or  replowed   before 
sowing. 

As  emigration  extended  further  west  into  the 
dry  belt,  where  the  prairie  sod  was  less  tenacious  on 
account  of  limited  moisture  and  the  trampling  and 
feeding  of  numerous  cattle,  the  method  of  breaking 
up    the    land    became    somewhat     modified.        Three 


Fig.   12.     All  okl-tiuie   "prairie-breaker." 


liorses  attached  to  a  steel  plow  with  rolling  colter 
could  perform  the  work.  The  share  and  colter  were 
both  filed  every  few  hours,  that  they  might  the 
more  easily  cut  the  tough  grass  roots.  Fig.  12  rep- 
resents one  of  the  old-style  prairie -breakers,  with 
the  beam  nine  to  ten  feet  long,  and  capable  of 
withstanding  almost  any  amount  of  strain.  Owing 
to  the  changed  conditions  noted  above,  this  plow 
has  become  nearly  obsolete.  As  soon  as  the  native 
grasses  were  destroyed  the  American  plowman,  as 
well  as  the  plow -maker,  discovered  that  economy  re- 
quired  much   of  the   pulverization   of   the   soil   to  be 


54  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

done  by  the  plow  alone,  in  order  to  save  labor  in 
fitting  the  seed-bed.  Tliis  fact  was  not  fully  realized 
in  the  United  States  until  agriculture  reached  the 
great  prairies,  where  the  mellowness  of  the  soil  and 
the  immense  areas  to  be  cultivated  soon  developed  a 
plow  which  could  fit  stubble  land  for  a  succeeding 
crop  with  little  or  no  subsequent  treatment.  As 
soon  as  the  grass  roots  wore  rotted  and  the  land 
was  well  subdued,  there  was  great  difficulty  in  se- 
curing a  plow  that  would  "scour,"  or  clear  itself. 
As  high  as  $100  was  offered  by  one  of  the  early 
settlers  in  LaPorte  county,  Indiana,  for  one  that 
would   "scour"    and   do    good   work. 

Between  1860  and  1870,  a  glass  plow  was  in- 
vented. It  failed  to  meet  expectations,  since  it  did 
not  scour  as  well  as  those  already  in  use.  To  stand 
the  strain  it  was  made  heavy,  was  likely  to  break, 
and,  therefore,  it  never  advanced  beyond  the  experi- 
mental stage.  If  the  action  of  the  ancient  wooden 
moldboard  had  been  carefully  observed,  it  would 
have  been  discovered  that  it  possessed  the  quality 
of  scouring  beyond  all  other  moldboards  except  those 
made   of  hardened   steel. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CONTEMPORANEOUS  PLOWS. 

The  next  effort  was  to  construct  a  plow  with 
a  ateel  moldboard,  which  was  hardened  by  chilling 
the  outer  surface  after  heating  in  layers  of  charcoal. 
Before  purchasing,  the  farmer  tested  the  moldboard 
with   the   sharp  point  of  »  knife;  —  if   a  scratch  could 


The   Making   of  the    Moldboard.  55 

be  made  the  plow  was  condemned.  These  plows 
often  worked  well  for  a  time,  but  the  unequal 
wear  and  the  unequal  hardening  resulted  in  devel- 
oping soft  spots  in  the  moldboard,  to  which  the  dirt 
would  adhere  and  around  which  it  would  build  until 
the  plow  was  little  better  in  efficiency  than  those 
shown  in  the  first  illustrations  in  this  chapter.  The 
writer  has  plowed  in  early  spring  when  the  plow  per- 
sisted in  becoming  more  rusty  every  day,  although 
the  moldboard  was  cleaned  with  a  wooden  paddle  at 
frequent  intervals.  As  the  season  advanced,  and  the 
ground  became  drier  and  firmer,  the  same  plow  would 
work  satisfactorily. 

For  several  j'ears  the  moldboards  of  plows  were 
hardened  in  hot  oil,  in  order  to  overcome  the  dif- 
ficulties that  were  met  with  when  only  the  outer 
surface  was  hardened.  This  was  a  fairly  successful 
but  very  expensive  method,  because  in  the  operation 
many  of  them  would  twist  or  crack.  To  overcome 
this  difficulty,  a  layer  of  steel  and  a  layer  of  soft 
iron  were  welded  together  to  form  the  moldboard. 
and  this  preserved  its  shape  during  the  hardening 
process. 

By  a  process  lately  invented,  moldboards  are 
made  of  three  layers  of  steel  welded  together,  the 
middle  one  being  soft  and  the  two  outer  ones  hard. 
Afterwards  they  ai*e  shaped  and  heated,  immersed  in 
a  preparation,  varying  with  different  plow-makers, 
and  held  firmly  by  clamps  while  cooling.  By  this 
means  the  shape  is  preserved  and  the  tension  ver\ 
largely    overcome    by  the    middle    layer    of    soft  steel. 


66  The   Fertility   of  the    Ijind. 

The  practice  of  carbonizing  or  rliilling  the  face 
of  the  moldboard  of  both  steel  and  cast-iron  plows 
has  become  common.  To  accomplish  this,  several 
methods  are  in  use,  all  of  which  aim  to  harden  the 
face  of  the  metal,  and  to  cause  it  to  form  crystals 
at  right  angles  to  the  surface  on  the  outer  or  wear- 
ing side,  while  preserving  a  soft,  laminated  structure 
on  the  opposite  side.  One  method  is  to  form  the 
lower  half  of  the  matrix,  which  is  to  i-eceive  the 
melted  material,  of  iron,  and  the  "upper  half  of  sand. 
The  metal  part  of  the  mold  into  which  the  iron 
is  run  causes  the  crystals  to  arrange  themselves  at 
right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  moldboard,  and 
also  hardens  the  forming  moldboard  for  the  greatei- 
part  of  its  thickness,  while  the  back  of  the  casting, 
which  rests  against  the  sand  of  the  mold,  remains 
soft.  This  process,  or  a  similar  one,  is  now  iu 
universal  use,  and  plows  constructed  in  this  man- 
ner scour  better  and  are  more  durable  than  form- 
erly was    the   ease. 

From  1861  to  1865,  and  for  some  time  subsequent 
thereto,  wages  on  the  farm  were  high,  and  the  plow- 
maker,  seeing  his  opportunity,  constructed  gang 
plows  :  that  is,  two  or  three  plows  fastened  to  one 
or  more  beams.  This  resulted  in  economy  of  plow- 
men, but  as  it  could  be  operated  only  by  able-bodied 
men,  it  was  quickly  followed  by  the  sulky  plow. 
This  not  only  had  all  the  valuable  qualities  of  the 
unmounted  gang- plow,  but  it  also  allowed  the  use, 
as  drivers,  of  women,  children  and  cripples, —  a  great 
consideration    iu   war   times.       By  the  use  of    wheels 


Prairie    Stubble    Plow.  57 

a  large  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  plow  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  ground  to  the  axles  of  the  sulky, 
and  this  was  such  a  great  saving  in  power  that  it 
was  possible  to  make  a  plow,  including  the  sulky, 
of  three  or  four  times  the  weight  of  the  ordinary 
one,  mount  upon  it  a  plowman,  and  still  not  increase 
the  force  necessary  to  do  the  work.  Wherever  the 
fields  are  reasonably  large  and  the  ground  adapted 
to  their  use,  the  work  can  be  done  better  with  these 
implements    than     by   the     ordinary     walking     plow. 


Fig.  13.    Prairie  stubble  plow. 

Often  a  gang  of  two  or  three  plows  is  attached 
to  one  sulky,  and  drawn  by  several  horses  managed 
by  a  single  plowman,  thereby  reducing  the  cost  of 
laborers  materially.  This  method  of  plowing  has 
been  practiced  more  extensively  in  California  than 
in  any  other  state,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see 
eight  lusty  horses  attached  to  a  sulky  gang -plow, 
in  the  great  wheat  districts  of  the  Sacramento  and 
other   valleys. 

The  highest  development  in  the  plow  is  seen  in 
the  three  accompanying  pictures.  Fig.  13  represents 
a  steel  prairie  stubble  plow  without  clevis  or  rolling 
cutter.        Its    lightness,    overhanging    moldboard,    and 


58 


The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 


broad,    flat   share,  which    enables    the    plow    to  (nit    a 
sixteen -inch   furrow,  are    features  which   enable    it  to 


Pig.  14.     A  modpl   wood-)x»atn  jilow. 

perform  its  desired  work  with  ease,  cheapness  and 
offieiency  on  tho  stoneless  prairies.  Figs.  14  and  1") 
show  plows  built  on  much  the  same  lines  as  are 
shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  shares  are  not  so  flat  and 
broad,    and    the    raoldboards  are    larger   and    not    so 


Fig.  15.     The  ideal  plow. 


overhanging.       The    plows    are    heaviei-.    and    in     all 
tilings  have   been    most    admirably   adapted    to   hard 


The    Antfrirnv    Plow.  59 

and  stony  land,  and  to  plowing  both  stubble  and  sod 
when    the  jointer   attachment    is  used. 

The  American  plow  has  taken  the  form  best 
adapted  to  fitting  the  land  cheaply  and  well,  without 
much  reference  to  straight  and  beautiful  furrows,  and 
hence  the  evolution  of  the  plow  in  the  United  States 
has  been  along  new  and  original  lines.  Discovery 
has  followed  discovery  rapidly,  the  plow -maker  can 
now  procure  the  best  of  material,  and  it  may  be 
said  that  no  other  country  produces  so  many  varie- 
ties of  plows  which  are  so  good  or  so  well  adapted 
to  varied  soils  and  conditions  as  America  does.  As 
a  result  of  the  great  improvements  in  plows  of 
American  manufacture,  these  implements  ai-e  now 
exported  in  large  numbers  to  South  America  and 
various   parts  of   Europe,    and   also    to   Japan. 

Through  all  these  centuries  how  slow  has  been 
the  evolution  of  the  plow !  So  far  no  implement  has 
been  invented  to  take  its  place,  nor  has  any  success 
come  to  inventors  who  have  departed  from  the  prin- 
ciple of  combining  two  unequally  twisted  wedges, 
one  acting  in  a  horizontal,  the  other  in  a  perpendic- 
ular plane.  Whenever  the  farmer  will  consent  to 
furnish  more  power,  the  evolution  of  the  plow  will 
continue  along  the  lines  of  greater  depth  and  more 
perfect  pulverization  of  the  soil,  whereby  augmented 
available  fertility  and  increased  conservation  of  mois- 
ture will  be  secured. 

This  narrative  recalls  the  noble  words  of  Jethro 
Tull,  written  early  in  the  last  century:  "Men  of  the 
greatest   Learning  have   spent    their   Time    in  contriv- 


60  Thr    Ffrfilifjf    nf   fhf    Utnd. 

ing  Instruments  to  measure  the  immense  Distance  of 
the  Stars,  and  in  finding  out  the  Dimensions,  and 
even  Weight  of  the  Planets :  They  think  it  more 
eligiV>le  to  study  the  Art  of  plowing  the  Sea  with 
Ships,  than  of  Tilling  the  Land  with  Ploughs  ;  they 
bestow  the  utmost  of  their  Skill,  learnedly,  to  prevent 
the  natural  Use  of  all  the  Elements  for  Destruction 
of  their  own  Species,  by  the  bloody  Art  of  War. 
Some  waste  their  whole  Lives  in  studying  how  to 
arm  Death  with  new  Engines  of  Horror,  and  invent- 
ing an  infinite  Variety  of  Slaughter ;  but  think  it 
beneath  Men  of  Learning  (who  only  are  capable  of 
doing  it)  to  employ  their  learned  Labours  in  the 
Invention  of  new  (or  even  improving  the  old)  Instru- 
ments  for   increasing  of    Bread." 


CHAPTER   III. 

TILLING    THE    LAND. 

The  one  fundamental  labor  of  agriculture  is  the 
stirring  and  mixing  of  the  soil.  The  effects  of  this 
simple  practice  are  most  numerous,  complex  and  far- 
reaching,  and  the  problems  associated  with  it  seem 
to  be  beyond  the  comprehension  of  most  farmers. 
It  is,  therefore,  important  that  the  man  who  is  in- 
tending to  gain  any  satisfaction  in  farming  should 
begin  his  study  and  thinking  at  the  handles  of  the 
plow,  for  this  point  is  the  very  threshold  of  agricid- 
ture.  "In  general,  the  texture  of  lands  can  be  im- 
proved by  three  means,  —  l)y  judicious  plowing  and 
tillage,  by  the  incorporation  of  humus,  and  by  the 
use  of  underdrains.*  The  value  of  simple  tillage  or 
fining  of  the  land  as  a  means  of  increasing  its  pro- 
ductivity was  first  clearly  set  forth  in  1733  by  Jethro 
Tull,  in  his  'New  Horse  Hoeing  Husbandry.'  The 
premises  upon  which  Tull  founded  his  system  are 
erroneous.  He  supposed  that  plant  roots  actually 
take  in  or  absorb  the  fine  particles  of  the  earth,  and, 
therefore,  the  finer  and  more  numerous  these  particles 
are,  the  more  luxuriantly  the  plant  will  grow.  His 
system  of  tillage,  however,  was  correct,  and  his  ex- 
periments   and    writings    have    had    a    most    profound 

*.See  Cover  Crops  aJid  Liming,  pages  253  and  305. 


62  The  Fertility  of  fin    hind. 

influence.  II"  only  oim-  Vtook  (jf  all  the  tlioti.sandH 
which  have  been  written  on  at^ricnlture  and  rural 
affairs  were  to  ])e  preserved  to  future  generations,  I 
should  want  that  honor  conferred  upon  Tull's  'Horse 
Hoeing  Husbandry.'  It  marked  the  beginning  of 
tlie  modern  application  of  scientifi(r  methods  to  agri- 
culture, and  promulgated  a  system  of  treatment  of 
the  land  which,  in  its  essential  ])iinciples,  is  now 
accepted  by  every  good  farmer,  and  the  appreciation 
of  which  must  increase  to  the  end  of  time.  These 
discursive  remarks  will,  I  hope,  emphasize  the  im- 
portance which  simple  tillage  holds  in  agricultural 
practice."'^ 

UENERAL     HEMAKKS    ON     PLOWINC. 

The  land  produc«'s  al»undantly  if  left  to  itself, 
and  grows  steadily  jnore  fertile  ;  then  why  sluMild 
it  be  plowed '?  We  shall  find  many  reasons,  if  the 
subject  is  carefully  analyzed.  Nature,  without  the 
assistance  of  man.  produces  but  few  fruits  and 
tubers  of  a  character  suited  to  the  exacting  wants 
of  civilized  man.  Her  only  effort  is  to  perjx'tuate 
the  most  suitable  si)ecies,  and  since  there  is  a  con- 
stant warfare  for  the  ])ossession  of  the  soil,  vastly 
more  plants  are  usiuilly  present  than  have  oppor- 
tunity for  the  highest  development  of  these  secon- 
dary or  incidental  features  ;  hence  the  parts  which, 
under  domestication,  l)ecome  edilde  are  woody,  in- 
edible,    bitter,      or      wanting     in      flavor.        A     large 

*B*iley,  "Tb*  Texture  uf  the   Soil."   Bull.  IIU.  Cornell  Kxp.  Sta.  411. 


OhjerJs   of   Plowing.  63 

jje  i  17  plowing  is,  therefore,  primarily  to  destroy 
iant.' :  f  the  plants  are  large,  they  are  removed 
•  bi!  eu,  in  order  that  the  plow  may  have  oppor- 
tunity to  do  its  work.  The  plow  that  fails  to  bury 
ordinary  plants  deep  enough  so  that  subsequent  till- 
age, is  not  obstructed,  does  not  accomplish  all  that 
it  should.  All  of  the  objects  which  may  be  secured 
1>^'  plowing  are  seldom  or  never  kept  in  view  ;  henc^ 
ill  America  it  is  the  least  understood  and  most  im- 
perfectly performed  of  any  operation  of  preparing  ^ 
the  land  for  crops.  It  is  still  worse  in  Europe. 
The  Englishman  does  little  more  than  two  things 
with  the  plow, —  inverts  the  furrow,  and  makes  it 
straight . 

One  of  the  chief  objects  of  plowing  is  to  .pulver- 
ize the  soil.  The  plow  may  invert  it  in  the  most 
perfect  manner  and  bury  surface  vegetation,  but  if  it 
fails  to  do  the  greater  part  of  the  fining  of  the  soil  as 
well  and  leaves  it  in  such  a  condition  that  the  har- 
row and  cultivator  cannot  complete  the  work  in  the 
cheapest  and  best  manner,  it  is  seriously  defective. 
/Since  plowing  is  a  slow  and  expensive  operation,  and 
the  plow  is  by  far  the  best  implement  that  has  been 
devised  for  moving  and  inverting  the  soil,  for  de- 
stroying plants,  and  preparing  the  land  for  surface 
tillage,  and  for  loosening  and  pulverizing  it,  its  effi- 
ciency and  the  power  required  to  plow  become  of 
prime  importance. 

Since  only  10  per  cent  of  the  energy  required  to 
do  the  plowing  is  used  by  the  action  of  the  mold- 
board  even  with   those  having  a   fairly  short   twist,   it 


64  The    Fertility  of  thp    lAind. 

is  economy  to  break  and  disintegi-ate  the  furrow -slice 
to  the  greatest  possible  degree  by  as  bold  and  over- 
hanging a  moldboard  as  possible,  considering  the 
character  of  the  land.  "About  35  per  cent  of  the 
power  necessarj-  to  plow  is  used  up  by  the  friction 
due  to  the  weight  of  the  plow,  and  55  per  cent  by 
severing  the  furrow -slice  and  the  friction  of  the 
land -side."*  If,  after  having  done  nine -tenths  of  the 
work,  the  plow  allows  the  furrow -slice  to  escape 
without  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  disintegra-) 
tion,  great  loss  is  sustained  because  the  bolder  and 
more  efficient  moldboard  may  add  2  or  3  per  cent 
to  the  draft.  To  effect  the  greatest  amount  of 
disintegration  of  the  furrow -slice,  the  jointer  or 
skim  plow  (see  page  67)  should  be  attached,  even 
when  plowing  stubble  land.  It  should  be  set  deep 
enough  to  break  up  the  tenacity  of  the  furrow  and 
to  prevent  it  from  kinking.  Even  tenacious  sod 
can  be  successfully  handled  by  the  bold  moldboard, 
provided  the  jointer  is  of  the  right  shape  and  set 
deep  enough.  On  very  tenacious  or  stony  land,  the 
jointer  cannot  be  used  with  success,  but  happily,  stony 
land  is  not  tenacious.  The  proper  use  of  it  also 
prevents  the  furrow-slice  from  turning  over  too  flat, 
and  leaves  the  land  in  a  corrugated  condition,  which 
allows  the  implements  of  surface  tillage  to  take  hold 
of  the  crests  of  the  furrows,  and  break  and  fine  them 
without    disturbing    the     sod.       In    the     spring,    this 

•.I.  Stanton  Gould,  Utica,  N.  Y..  Plow  Trial,  1867.  l^roy  Anderson,  B.S., 
found  in  eitt-nded  experiments  made  at  Cornell  University,  1W»6,  that  ,'w  per 
cent  of  tlie  tot«l  draft  is  consumed  in  eutting  the  furrow-slioe,  12  per  cent  in 
toruinic  it,  and  3J  iM-r  cent  by  the  frii-tion  of  the  sole  and  land-iide. 


Poor   hut    Handsome    Plowing. 


65 


method  permits  the  land  to  absorb  heat  and  to  part 
with  excess  of  moisture.  It  also  buries  all  surface 
matter  so  that  subsequent  tillage  is  not  obstructed.* 
In  fall  plowing,  beneficial  results  will  be  secured  if 
tlie  land  is  allowed  to  remain  corrugated.  Invert- 
ing and  fining   the    soil   is  at  best  a  tedious  and   ex- 


Pig.  16.    The  complete  inversion  of  the  furrow-slice. 


pensive  process,  but  the  jointer,  intelligently  used, 
is  the  most  effective  attachment  that  has  ever  been 
invented  for  accomplishing  these  specific  results,  and 
the  more  general  use  of  it  cannot  be  too  strongly 
urged. 

The  three    accompanying    graphic    illustrations  M'ill 
make  these  matters  plain.     Fig.  16  shows  the  furrow- 


66 


The    Fertility  of  the    Lund. 


slice  laid  too  flat,  and  left  with  the  soil  very  little 
.disturbed  by  the  action  of  the  moldboard.  Plow- 
ing similar  to  this  used  to  take  the  premiums  at 
the    plowing  matches   held  at   the  fairs  over   the    bet- 


Fig.  IT.     The  furrows  standing  nearly  edgewise. 


ter  plowing,  as  shown  in  Figs.  17  and  18.  '  Fig. 
17  is  from  a  photograph  of  sod  land  plowed  with 
a  coulter  attachment  and  a  fairly  bold  moldboard. 
The  land  is  moderately  well  pulverized  for  one  ope- 
ration, and  is  left  in  a  fairly  good  condition  for 
effi(;ient  action  of  the  implements  of  surface  tillage, 
but  the  ,  plants  have  not  been  fully  turned  under. 
Fig.  18  is  from  a  like  drawing  of  land  plowed  with 
the  same  type  of  i)low  and  jointer  attachment,  but 
with  a  somewhat  bolder  moldboard,  which  left  the 
surface  better  pulverized,  necessitating  less  surface 
tillage  than  in  the  former  case,  and  the  plants  are 
all    buried. 


Skim-Plo>r    atul    Hold    MohJhoards. 


67 


In  rare  cases  it  may  be  best  to  leave  the  fur- 
row imperfectly  fined  and  at  a  somewhat  acute  angle, 
as  when  clayey  soils  are  plowed  in  the  fall  for 
spring  crops,  as  such  kind  of  plowing  allows  the 
water  to  descend  and  the  frost  to  act  upon  the  soil 
most  energetically.  The  land  might  then  become 
warmer  and  drier  in  early  spring  than  it  would  if 
plowed  as  in  Fig.  18,  while  the  tendency  to  puddle 
would  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Small  changes  in 
the  lines  of  the  moldboard,  even  though  scarcely 
perceptible  without  accurate  measurements,  produce 
widely  different    results. 

The  surface  tillage  which  may  be  necessary  to 
finish  fitting  the  land  should  be  kept  prominently 
in    view    when    plowing  The    manner    of     plowing 


Fig.  18.     Ideal  plowing. 


sandy  and    friable    lands    matters   little    so  far   as    the 
total    cost    of   the  whole  season's   tillage   is  concerned 
but    on    tenacious    soils   the    plowing  often    represents 


68  The    Fertilitij    <>/  flu     Loud. 

not.  more  than  oiu^-third  to  one-fiftli  of  the  cost  of 
suitably  preparing  the  first  eight  inches  of  the  sur- 
face for  some  kinds  of  plants.  If  a  tenacious  soil 
covered  with  a  tough  sod  be  plowed  with  the  help 
of  a  colter  attachment,  and  the  furrow -slice  be  laid 
nearly  flat,  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  fit  the  land 
well  until  the  sod  has  rotted  and  the  land  has  been 
replowed. 

In  England,  planting  is  seldom  done  until  a  deej). 
mellow  seed-bed  is  secured,  no  matter  how  stubborn 
the  soil.  The  subsequent  tillage  often  costs  far  more 
than  the  plowing.  The  added  labor  is  necessar^ , 
in  part,  because  the  colter  is  used  instead  of  the 
jointer,  and  in  part  because  the  furrows  are  laid 
nearly  or  quite  flat.  \I^lowing  is  jwor  that  fails  to 
do  the  greater  part  of  the  rough  i)ulverizing,  and 
to  leave  the  surface  in  the  best  possible  condition 
for  th«  effective  use  of  the  implements  which  are  to 
follow.j  This  can  certainly  be  done  without  sacrific- 
ing any  of  the  other  l)enefits  which  should  be  secured 
by  plowing. 

The  old   couplet 

"  He  that    l»y  the  plow  would    thrive, 
Himself    must  either    liold    oi-    drive." 

has  }>ecome  obsolete.  May  not  the  following  be  sub- 
stituted   for    it?  — 

He  that  •would    good    plowing    view, 
Should   think   what    else    is    left    to    do. 

Inverting  the  .soil  sometimes  results  in  positive 
injury  to  the  succeeding  crop;  when,  tor  example,  the 


Inversion   of  Stnhhlo    Land  GO 

land  has  been  occupied  by  deep-rooted  plants,  tliat 
liad  })een  treated  to  thorough  and  continuous  surface 
inter- tillage*  during  the  greater  part  of  the  grow- 
ing season,  as  in  potato  cultivation.  The  cultivation 
which  is  necessary  to  keep  the  weeds  in  check  un- 
locks the  plant -food  near  the  surface.  If  the  plants 
feed  at  considerable  depth,  as  the  potato  does,  it  is 
evident  that  the  soil  does  not  need  inverting,  unless 
it  is  necessar}-  to  improve  its  physical  condition.  It 
is  also  evident  that  the  land  should  l)e  deeply  plowed 
and  most  thoroughly  prepared  prior  to  being  occu- 
pied by  deep -feeding  plants.  Except  on  light  lands, 
where  all  plants  are  likely  to  root  at  considerable 
distances  from  the  surface,  a  fairly  complete  inver- 
sion of  the  soil  is  desirable  if  the  previous  crop  luis 
been  a  shallow  feeder,  because  the  readily  available 
plant -food  near  the  surface  has  been  somewhat  ex- 
hausted, and  hence  new  provision  should  be  made 
for  the  coming  crop. 
■^  The  more  complete  the  inversion  of  stubble  land 
the  better.  Two  kinds  of  plows,  one  for  stubble  and 
one  for  sod  land,  are  needed,  if  the  woi-k  is  to  be 
done  in  the  best  manner.  While  tliis  necessitates 
additional  expenditure  for  implements,  the  more  effi- 
cient work  and  saving  of  sulisequent  tillage  fully 
compensate    for    it. 


* "  Intereultural  tillage"  is  a  term  proposed  by  Sturtevant  to  designate 
tillage  between  plants  in  distinction  to  that  which  is  performed  only  when 
the  ground  is  bare  of  plants  (as  in  the  sowed  crops).  See  Conn.  Board 
of  Agric.  xi.  190  (1877-8)  ;  also,  an  editorial  in  Gard.  Chron.  May  28,  1887.  As 
tillage  is  a  better  word  than  culture  to  designate  the  stirring  of  the  land, 
"inter-tillage "  has  been  used  in  this  book  to  desitjnato  tillage  between  the 
plants  —  that  is,  ordinary  cultivating,  hoeing,  and   the  like. — i..  H.  B, 


70  The    FcriUHy   of  ihr    TAind. 

In  addition  to  improving  the  physical  conditions 
of  the  soil,  plowing  gives  opportnnity  for  weathering, 
which  not  only  unlocks  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
brought  up  by  the  plow,  but  often  materially  assists 
in  fining  it.  Unless  al)undant  fertility  is  present, 
or  there  is  readily  decomposable  vegetable  matter,  as 
in  clover  sod,  j)l<intiiig  would  better  not  follow  the 
plowing  closely,  as  time  and  surface  tillage  tend  to 
unlock  the  inert  fertility  brought  to  the  sui'fa<-e  h\ 
the  i)low.  Xo  positive  rule  can  be  given  for  treat- 
ment of  soils,  as  climate,  crop  and  conditions  vary 
greatly.  If  experience  shows  that  turning  the  land 
over  is  advantageous,  then  it  should  be  done  thor- 
oughly, as  in  many  cases  great  benefit  will  l)e  do- 
rived  from  so  fining  and  compacting  the  ^eed-bcd 
that  capillary  attraction  can  bring  moisture  from 
below,  thereby  making  it  possible  for  the  young 
plants  to  avail  themselves  ipiickly  of  the  nourishment 
provided . 

Sometimes  it  is  easy  to  prepare  a  seed-bed  of 
one  or  two  inches  without  i>lowing,  and  the  young 
plants  may  start  off  vigorously,  l)Ut  if  the  physical 
condition  of  the  sub-surface  soil  is  l)ad,  <'apillarity 
feeble,  and  available  i)lant-foo(l  deficient,  the  harvest 
will  be  disappointing.  If  the  surface  is  hard  and 
diflficult  to  loosen,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  on  fall- 
plowed  land,  and  when  heavy,  dashing  rains  have 
run  the  soil  together,  it  is  usually  best  to  replow 
it,  so  that  proper  opportunity  may  be  given  foi- 
surface   tillage. 

Ever  since  summer  fallows  have  gone  out  of   fash- 


Fallows.  71 

loti,  It  has  been  hard  to  convince  the  farmer  that 
more  than  one  plowing  may  be  required  to  bring 
the  land  into  proper  tilth.  Because  of  this  prejudice 
against  plowing  more  than  once,  a  varied  assortment 
of  implements  for  fining  the  soil  has  been  put  on 
the  market.  Some  of  these  implements  are  good, 
some  bad,  but  few  of  them  are  necessary  if  the 
plowing  has  been  well  done  and  underdrains  have 
performed  their  legitimate  work.  Formerly  the  land 
was  often  plowed  five  or  six  times  ;  now  the  pendu- 
lum has  swung  to  the  other  extreme.  The  slow,  labo- 
rious work  of  plowing  with  two  light  horses  and  a 
single  plow,  still  in  vogue  in  many  states,  is  dreaded, 
and  justly  so  ;  consequently  the  attempt  is  made  to 
prepare  the  ground  by  "scratching  it."  If  some  of 
the  western  farmer's  methods  could  be  adopted  on  large, 
level  fields^,  and  six  or  eight  large,  strong  horses  har- 
nessed to  a  gang- plow,  the  objects  sought  might  be  at- 
tained at  the  lowest  cost. 

A  good  plow  is  capable  of  accomplishing  many 
results  in  varied  directions,  and  one  not  to  be  over- 
looked is  that  of  performing  the  pioneer  work  of . 
breaking  up  intractable  land  while  preparing  it  in 
the  best  manner  for  the  efficient  action  of  the  imple- 
ments which  follow.  We  are  inclined  to  extol  the 
progi'essive  spirit  of  the  American  farmer,  and  speak 
slightingly  of  some  of  the  crude  and  laborious  meth- 
ods sometimes  seen  in  foreign  countries;  yet  in  most 
parts  of  the  United  States  the  plowing  is  seldom 
seven  inches  deep,  and  the  plowing  team  rarely  ex- 
ceeds  one    or    two   light    horses   or    mules,  while    the 


72  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

sugar  planter  of  the  benighted  Hawaiian  Islands 
uses  a  double  gang  of  from  four  to  six  plows,  easily 
handling  furrows  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  broad 
and  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  deep,  and  one  or  two 
great  steam  engines  take  the  place  of  the  "cotton 
mule"  of   the  south  and  the  light  team  of   the  north. 

SOME    SPECIFIC    RESULTS    OF    PLOWING. 

Effects  of  plowituj  on  soil  moisture.— Deep  plowing 
assists  the  downward  passage  of  water.  Sometimes 
the  soil  is  of  so  close  a  texture  that  water  passes 
but  slowly  to  the  subsoil,  the  land  becomes  puddled, 
cold  and  sour,  and  when  broken  up  is  diflficult  to 
bring  into  good  tilth.  In  such  cases  underdraius  are 
necessary  Jn  order  to  reap  the  highest  results.  Bet- 
ter prevent  the  locking  up  of  i)lant-f()od  and  the 
formation  of  clods  by  underdraining  once  for  all, 
than  go  to  the  expense  of  breaking  clods  whenever 
the  land  is  tilled.  When  cinmmstances  make  it  in- 
advisable to  tile  the  land  at  once,  much  may  be  done 
with  the  plow  to  facilitate  percolation. 

In  theory,  all  water  falling  on  the  land  should 
be  made  to  percolate  through  it.  Practically,  this  is 
impossible,  and,  since  it  is  far  better  to  have  the 
water  carried  away  over  the  land  than  to  have  it 
stand  upon  the  land,  the  practice  of  plowing  in 
wide  landSi  with  dead-furrows  falling  in  the  same 
place  for  a  time,  is  to  be  recommended  when  there 
is  only  slight  danger  of  washing.  (See  "  How  to 
plow,"  page  90.)      Removing    surphis    water    from    tlie 


Plowing  Assists   Percolation.  73 

surface  prevents  puddling  to  some  extent,  and  thus 
indirectly  assists  the  downward  passage  of  the  water 
which  is  not  directly  carried  off,  thereby  keeping  the 
hind  loose  cnoii'^li  for  the  ready  passage  of  the  water 
that  falls  at  tlie  beginning  of  showers,  and  also  as 
sisting  in  arresting  and  presei-ving  the  ammonia  which 
tlie  rain-water  contains.  This  percolation  of  rain- 
water not  only  conserves  plant -food,  but  improves 
the  physical  condition  of  the  land.  Surface  drainage 
is  promoted  if  the  depressions  left  by  the  drill  or 
liarrow  at  the  time  of  sowing  are  at  right  angles 
to  the  dead -furrows,  as  they  form  miniature  channels 
wliich  quickly  lead  the  water  away.  Clay  lands  that 
are  submer-ged  for  a  time  are  affected  more  by  drought 
than  those  which  are  not  submerged,  and  hence  the 
contour  of  the  land  should  be  so  shaped  by  the 
plow  as  to  assist  surface  drainage. 

Wherever  percolation  is  difficult,  comparatively 
shallow  plowing  should  be  done  in  early  spring,  and 
deeper  plowing  in  midsummer  and  autumn,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  hard-pan.  If  plowing 
is  continued  at  one  depth  for  several  seasons,  the 
l)ressure  of  the  implement  and  the  trampling  of  the 
horses  in  time  solidify  the  bottom  of  the  furrow ; 
but  if  the  plowing  is  shallow  in  the  spring  and  deep 
in  the  summer  and  fall,  the  objectionable  hard-pan 
will  be  largely  prevented.  This  is  especially  true 
where  the  winter  frosts  assist  the  downward  passage 
of  water  by  their  action  on  the  subsoil.  Since  fre- 
quent and  deep  plowing  materially  assists  percolation, 
JVC  have   another  reason    for  making    a    careful    stud^' 


74  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

of  the  plow  as  a  factor  in  effecting  increased  pro- 
duction and  fertility. 

While  1  subsoiling  may  clearly  assist  the  down- 
ward passage  of  water,  the  expense  is  so  groat,  and 
the  work  has  to  be  so  frequently  repeated,  that  it 
has  nearly  gone  out  of  practice.  I  If  the  depth  of 
the  furrow  were  increased  a  little  from  year  to  year, 
changinpr  it  in  time  from  six  to  ten  inches,  percola- 
tion would  not  only  be  increased,  but  other  bene- 
ficial results  would  follow.  If  the  little  plow,  turn- 
ing a  furrow  of  only  nine  or  ten  inches  in  width 
and  six  inches  in  depth,  could  be  exchanged  for  a 
plow  capable  of  handling  a  furrow  sixteen  by  ten 
inches,  and  the  two  900- pound  horses  replaced  by 
three  horses  of  1,200  pounds  each,  the  necessity  of 
sub -soiling  would  be  largely  obviated,  and  the  cost 
of  plowing  would  be  diminished  rather  than  increased, 
wherever  the  fields  are  large  and  fairly  level.  The 
larger  team  could  get  through  three  acres  while  the 
smalh'r  is  getting  through  two,  and  thus  by  adding 
one -half  more  to  the  daily  cost  of  the  team  without 
any  increased  expense  for  plowman,  half  as  many 
more  acres  could  be  turned.  While  the  larger  ])l<>w 
would  do  better  work  in  many  respects,  it  would 
especially  assist  percolation,  increase  root  pasturage, 
and  enlarge  the  moisture -storing  capacity  of  the 
soil.  In  the  past  it  was  necessary  to  turn  only  nar- 
row furrows,  because  the  imperfect  plows  could  not 
pulverize  wide  ones.  With  the  improved  plow,  nar- 
row furrows  are   no  longer  necessary. 

Nearly    all  cultivated    plants    get    their    chief    suj)- 


Capillarity    Promoted   by    Plowing.  75 

ply  of  moisture  from  the  soil,  and  this  fact  should 
be  kept  constantly  in  view  in  plowing  and  fitting 
the  land.  (The  part  which  is  played  by  the  plow  in 
assisting  moisture  to  rise  by  capillarity  to  the  root- 
lets of  the  plant,  and  in  modifying  the  evaporation 
of  water  from  the  surface  of  the  land,  should  be 
thoroughly  understood.  If  the  soil  is  very  porous, 
the  air  circulating  through  it  carries  off  a  large 
amount  of  moisture ;  if  too  compact,  the  interstices 
in  it  would  be  so  largely  closed  that  capillarity 
would  be  weak.  }  In  neither  case  will  the  best  con- 
ditions be  obtained.  (The  aim  should  be  to  secure 
those  physical  conditions  which  will  to  the  greatest 
extent  promote  capillarity  while  securing  other  desired 
objects.'^  To  accomplish  this,  the  soil  must  first  be 
made  fine  and  then  moderately  compacted.  Here 
again,  the  plow  plays  a  most  important  part,  for  in 
order  to  fine  and  solidify  the  soil,  the  earth  must 
first  be  lifted  so  that  the  inert  mass  may  be  twisted 
and  broken  up  into  small  particles,  when  it  may  be 
further  fined  and  compacted  by  other  implements  of 
tillage,  and  by  the  tramping  of  the  horses.  Water 
tends  not  only  to  rise,  but  to  diffuse  itself  through 
the  land,  moving  from  the  moister  to  the  drier 
parts,  and  every  opportunity  should  be  given  for  it 
to  do  so,  until  it  gpts  near  the  surface,  where  it 
should  be  arrested,  unless  one  object  of  the  plow- 
ing  has   been    to  dry  the   land. 

I  Some  soils  are  so  porous  that  deep  plowing 
works  a  positive  injury,  \  unless  care  is  taken  to 
thoroughly    compact    the    s^il    before    it   parts  with  its 


76  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

moisture.  Notwithstanding  this,  it  is  no  uncommon 
thine:  to  see  sandy,  clay,  dry  and  wet  lands  plowed 
and  treated  alike.      (Consult  Chapter  IV.) 

Prying  and  irarminq  the  land. — In  the  spring  it  is 
often  as  necessary  to  dry  the  land  as  to  conserve 
in()isture.  In  some  climates  it  may  be  necessary  to 
pl<)w  with  a  view  to  a<*complishing  })oth  objects  in 
a  single  season.  If  the  pores  of  the  soil  have  been 
sealed  up  by  heavy  rains,  it  may  be  l)est  to  plow 
in  order  to  hasten  the  time  of  planting,  and  to 
give  opportunity  for  rapid  evaporation,  even  though 
the  land  may  be  somewhat  too  damp  for  the  best 
working  of  the  soil.  If  the  weather  is  cloudy  and 
the  surface  fitting  is  done  at  the  right  time,  better 
results  will  follow  such  early  plowing  than  if  the 
land  is  left  to  slowly  dry  and  form  a  stiibborn 
mass  ])efore  it  is  plowed.  If  the  land  is  damp,  the 
plowing  should  b<'  .shallow,  the  surface  left  rough, 
and  as  much  breaking  up  of  the  furrow -slice  as 
possible  .should  be  done  by  the  jointer  and  mold- 
board,  in  ord<'r  to  avoid  locking  up  plant-food  by 
partial  puddling  <»f  the  sticky  earth. 

\  With  some  <*i*oi)s.  as  corn,  warmth  in  the  early 
spring  j)lays  an  inii)(»rtant  part.  In  such  »*a.s<s  ^ 
early  and  shallow  j)I()wing  is  valuable,  ]>ccause  it  i)ei-  / 
mits  the  rays  of  the  sun  to  increase  the  tempei-atni-c 
of  the  soil,  thereby  advancing  seed-time.  In  some 
localities  and  in  some  soils,  early,  shallow  plowing 
is  not  necessary.  What  has  been  said  is  not  to  be 
taken  as  advocacy  of  the  |)lowing  of  heavy  lands 
while  wet:\it    applies    only    to    emergencies,    as    when 


Various    Jh'itths    of    PJoiriuf/.  77 

the  spring  is  wet  and  c^old,  and  a  choice  must  be 
made  between  no  crop  and  only  a  moderate  one./  In 
the  case  of  inter -tilled  crops,  if  the  land  is  dried 
and  warmed  by  early  plowing,  planting  can  be  done 
at  the  proper  season,  and  opportunity  secured  to  re- 
duce the  stubbornness  of  the  seed-bed  by  after  tillage. 

Forming  a  hard-pan. — Porous  soils,  which  allow 
the  water  to  escape  too  rapidly,  are  improved  if  the 
plowing  is  so  carried  on  as  to  form  something  of  a 
hard-pan  at  depths  suited  to  the  character  of  the 
land,  the  climate,  and  the  plants  to  be  grown.  If 
the  plants  are  deep-rooted,  the  solidification  should 
be  some  eight  to  ten  inches  from  the  surface  ;  for 
shallow -rooted  plants,  it  may  be  higher.  By  always 
plowing  at  one  depth  and  when  the  land  is  slightly 
wet,  too  raptcbrfiiferaitian  may  be  somewhat  checked 
and  capillarity  increased,  while  in  heavy  lands  the 
aim  should  be  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  hard-pan 
by  occasional  deep  plowing.  Just  the  i-everse  of  this 
may  often  be  desirable  in  light  lands,  as  in  some 
parts  of  New  Jersey,  M^here  excellent  crops  ai-e  pro- 
duced from  year  to  year,  though  the  plowing  is  sel- 
dom more  than  four  inches  deep,  and  is  nearly  uni- 
form   from  season    to  season. 

Storage  capacity  of  the  soil. — Soils  vary  so  much 
in  weight  and  capacity  to  hold  moisture,  yet  remain- 
ing arable  and  in  good  physical  condition,  that  no  ac- 
curate statement  can  be  made  as  to  their  power  to 
take  up  or  to  hold  moisture.  An  acre  of  average 
soil,  one  foot  deep,  when  in  an  arable  condition  as  to 
drvness.   is  estimated  to  weigh  1,800  tons.     An  inch  of 


78  rh    FcriUifij    of  the    iMnd. 

raintHll  brings  to  each  acre  113  7-16  tons  of  water 
Soils  may  contain  from  20  to  25  per  cent  of  water, 
and  yet  be  not  too  moist  for  cultivation  ;  yet  plants 
are  able  to  maintain  themselves  and  fjrow  when  the 
soil  contains  but  6  to  8  per  cent  of  moisture.  If  an 
acre  of  soil  one  foot  deep  weighs  1,8(X)  tons  when 
it  contains  20  per  cent  of  moisture,  it  will  weigh 
1,557  tons  when  it  contains  but  lY,  per  <'ent  of 
moisture.  Two  inches  of  rainfall  might  be  taken  up 
by  the  first  foot  of  soil  in  the  latter  case,  provided 
the  soil  had  been  well  fined  and  a  little  time  given 
for  the  water  to  diffuse  through  it,  and  yet  remain 
in  good  condition  for  plowing,  foi-  it  would  contain 
but  a  little  over  20  per  cent  of  water.  The  above 
estimate  takes  no  account  of  the  water  which  passes 
below  one  foot,  which  nuist  be  considerable  when  the 
rains  are  abundant,  although  the  soil  below  may  be 
tenacious.  These  figures,  based  partly  on  ascertained 
facts  and  partly  on  estimates,  need  not  lead  the 
reader  astray  if  properly  applied  to  the  conditions 
which  surround  him. 

If  the  plowing  is  l)ut  four  inches  deep,  and  the 
computation  is  made  on  the  same  basis  as  before, — 
that  is,  7%  per  cent  (tf  water  ]>resent  in  the  soil. 
— and  a  rainfall  of  luit  one  indi  be  added,  the  sur- 
face land  will  contain  23. S  per  cent  of  water,  and 
may  be  too  wet  for  cultivation  ;  but  if,  as  before, 
two  inches  of  rain  should  fall,  there  will  be  present 
35.8  per  cent  of  water,  allowing,  as  V)efore.  that 
none  of  it  has  passed  l)el(>w  the  hard-pan  formed  by 
the  shallow  plowing. 


Water -holding    Capacity   of  Soils.  79 

In  order  to  still  further  emphasize  the  need  of 
deep  tillage  to  form  a  reservoir  for  the  storage  of 
moisture,  let  it  be  supposed  that  the  soil  is  in  a 
fine,  arable  condition  as  to  moisture,  and  contains  15 
per  cent  of  water ;  if  one  inch  of  rain  should  fall 
upon  the  deeply  tilled  land,  the  soil  would  then  con- 
tain 21  per  cent  of  water,  but  if  it  should  fall  upon 
the  shallow  plowed  land  it  would  contain  over 
26  per  cent.  The  case  is  still  worse  if  two 
inches  of  rain  should  fall,  for  in  the  former  case 
the  land  would  contain  28.9  per  cent  of  water,  and 
in  the  latter  35.7  per  cent,  an  amount  which,  in  soil 
not  full  of  vegetable  matter,  would  cause  it  to  move 
Ijodily  toward  the  lower  levels,  even  were  the  natu- 
ral inclination  slight. 

The  damage  from  water  held  near  the  surface 
does  not  end  in  the  loss  suffered  in  the  growth  of 
the  plant  and  work  delayed,  for  the  saturation  of 
the  surface  soil  results  in  sealing  up  its  pores, 
thereby  destroying  the  benefits  secured  by  fine  tilth, 
and  additional  labor  will  then  be  required  to  bring 
the  land  again  into  good  condition. 

Underdrains  and  deep  and  thorough  plowing  not 
only  diminish  the  tendency  of  clay  lands  to  run  to- 
gether, but  also  increase  the  storage  capacity  of  the 
soil,  and,  since  the  moisture  in  the  soil  is  all  likely 
to  be  wanted  some  time  during  the  growing  season, 
the  more  that  can  be  stored  up  without  doing  injury 
the  better.  It  has  already  been  shown,  in  part,  how 
to  enlarge  the  storage  capacity  of  the  soil  by  the 
use   of   the   plow,    but    there    are   many   other   factors 


I 


80  The    Fn'WUy    of  thr    TMnd. 

which  may  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  plow 
to    perfect  its  work. 

Aeration  promoted  by  plowing.  —  If  the  soil  is  com- 
pa(^t  and  the  interstices  filled  with  free  water  or  silt, 
it  will  not  contain  enough  air  for  best  results,  and 
therefore  plowing  for  the  purpose  of  letting  the  air 
enter  the  ground,  as  well  as  to  i)roni()t('  drainage  and 
absorption  of  moisture,  may  be  advantageous.  The 
roots  of  plants,  like  fishes,  requii-e  air.  and  although 
they  require  only  a  little,  that  little  is  necessary  to 
their  life  and  growth.  *The  soil  always  contains  some 
air,  but  it  may  easily  happen  that  there  is  too  nnich 
near  the  surface  and  too  little  b(>low.«  In  the  first 
instance,  too  free  movement  of  the  air  in  the  soil 
would  rob  the  seeds  of  moisture,  and  they  would  fail 
to  germinate  and  grow  A  If  there  wei*e  a  suitable 
amount  of  air  in  the  surface  soil  and  a  lack  of  it 
below,  seeds  might  germinate  freely,  but  the  subse- 
(juent  growth  would  be  hindered.  \^It  will  thus  be 
seen  how  necessary  it  is  to  plow  deep  in  order  that 
the  land  may  be  converted  into  a  vast  reservoir  foi- 
the  storage  of  air  and  moisture  in  the  right  pro- 
portions.   / 

Although  little  can  be  done  to  prevent  the  rain 
from  entering  the  soil  in  too  great  quantities,  yet  by 
intelligent  tillage  the  amount  of  air  in  the  soil  may 
l)e  largely  controlled.  /Aeration  not  only  promotes 
plant  growth  but  also  stts  free  plant -food,  for  upon 
aeration  both  chemical  and  physical  action  largely  de- 
pend. Thorough  aeration  of  the  land  can  be  ac- 
complished   only    by    deep    tillage,    which    may   result 


Aeration    <in</    Xitrification.  81 

at  first  in  too  great  aeration  and,  hence,  loss  of 
moisture ;  if  so,  the  compacting  and  fining  of  the 
land  by  surface  tillage  should  be  done  immediately 
or  soon    after    the   plowing. 

It  may  seem  that  too  much  detail  has  been  en- 
tered into  here,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that 
it  is  the  common  practice  to  plow  the  entire  field, 
even  in  dry  weather,  before  anything  is  done  to 
smooth  and  compact  the  loose  soil,  through  which, 
if  not  quickly  compacted,  the  hot,  dry  air  circulates 
freely,  and  robs  the  land  of  needed  moisture.  After 
a  portion  of  the  field  has  been  plowed  it  should  l)e 
fitted  before  the  surface  dries  out.  In  the  fitting, 
the  sub -surface  soil  is  compacted ;  this  promoter 
capillary  attraction,  and  a  surface  earth -mulch  of  two 
or  three  inches  is  secured,  which  serves  to  diminish 
evaporation.  No  amount  of  fertility  can  produce 
the  results  desired  if,  through  carelessness  or  igno- 
rance, the  conditions  are  ignored  that  are  necessary  for 
the  passing  of  nourishment  from  the  soil  to  the  plant. 

Nitrification  promoted  by  ploving. — As  has  been 
shown  in  Chapter  I.,  the  soil  contains  large  amounts 
of  plant -food  of  which  usually  only  a  small  fraction 
is  immediately  available,  and  therefore  one  of  the 
objects  of  plowing  is  to  promote  nitrification,  or  the 
changing  of  potential  nitrogen  into  available  nitro- 
gen. For  the  cereals  and  other  nitrogen -consuming 
plants,  the  aim  should  be  not  simply  to  furnish  them 
with  a  full  supply  of  food,  but  to  furnish  the  nitro- 
gen, especially  during  the  early  stages  of  their 
growth  when  they  most  require  it.  If  by  the  stim- 
G 


82  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

ulating  influence  of  nitrogen  the  plant  can  be  made 
to  enlarge  its  root -system  when  young,  it  will  ht- 
able  to  respond  to  the  larger  demands  which  will  be 
made  upon  it  at  the  time  of  perfecting  its  seed. 
But  so  much  nitrogen  may  be  present  as  to  over- 
stimulate  the  vegetative  at  the  expense  of  the  repro- 
ductive or  seed -producing  system,  and  to  cause  tin- 
plant  to  grow  too  large  and  porous,  when  it  will  Ix* 
likely  to  lodge  or  be  amenable  to  the  attacks  of  fun- 
gous diseases.  Little  damage,  however,  may  be  appre- 
hended from  a  surfeit  of  nitrogen  <;aused  by  tillage 
alone,  even  on  new  land.  In  the  effort  to  secure  avail- 
able nitrogen  for  the  plant  ])y  means  of  the  plow  and 
associated  implements,  care  should  be  taken  to  deter- 
mine w^hether  it  is  more  economical  to  utilize  that 
already  in  the  soil  by  extra  labor,  or  to  obtain  it 
through  leguminous  plants  or  from  outside  sources. 

In  order  to  promote  active  nitrification,  warmth, 
moisture  and  air  must  be  present  in  suitable  quanti- 
ties and  proportions. y  Moreover,  nitrification  goes  on 
far  more  actively  in  the  dark  than  in  the  light.  One 
of  the  objects  of  plowing  should  be  to  bring  about 
the  best  conditions,  for  if  they  are  faulty,  nitrification 
may  be  feeble  or  entirely  arrested.  Considering  that 
nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive  of  the  commercial 
plant-foods  when  purchased,  the  reader  will  at  once 
see  the  wisdom  of  economizing  home  resources  to  the 
utmost. 

It  should  be  said,  in  passing,  that  thorough  plow- 
ing lil)erates  mineral  matter  as  well  as  nitrogen,  and 
increases  product it»n  in  various,  other  ways.     It  divides 


Physical    Conditions    Imporhtnt.  .^3 

the    particles   of    earth,    presents   new   snrfaees  to    tlie 
action  of  the  roots,  and  hastens  chemical  changes. 

Physical  conditions  improved  by  plowing. — Plants 
may  be  said  to  travel  towards  their  food,  for  in  poor 
soils  they  form  attenuated  roots,  with  few  fibers, 
until  soil  containing  more  abundant  nourishment  is 
reached,  where  they  develop  an  abundance  of  feeding 
rootlets.  It  may  also  be  said  that  the  food  must 
be  brought  to  the  plant,  for  if  the  soil  that  con- 
fains  plant -food  is  not  brought  into  intimate  and 
close  contact  with  the  roots,  the  plant  is  not  nour- 
ished. If  the  physical  conditions  of  the  soil  are  bad, 
necessarily  the  food  conditions  are  bad  also,  as  the 
action  of  the  forces  which  prepare  the  food  is  hin- 
dered. Good  physical  conditions  presuppose  that  the 
plow  and  other  implements  have  brought  the  soil 
into  good  tilth,  and  that  in  accomplishing  this,  nour- 
ishment for  the  plant  has  incidentally  been  made 
available.  Aside  from  all  this,  the  physical  condition 
alone  has  marked  effects  on  moisture  and  root -growth, 
and  hence  on  the  welfare  of  the  plant,  for  the  roots 
penetrate  hard,  dry  soil  with  difficulty.  On  the  other 
hand,  roots  cannot  live  in  very  open  soil  unless  water 
is  abundant  and  constant, —  conditions  not  usually 
present    in  the  growing  season. 

Some  plants  are  more  likely  to  escape  the  vicis- 
situdes of  our  erratic  climate,  if  induced  by  good 
physical  conditions  of  the  soil  to  form  roots  at  some 
distance  from,  instead  of  near  to,  the  surface;  while 
others,  as  winter  wheat,  do  best  if  the  fall  feeding- 
roots  form  within  two  or  three  inches  of   the  surface; 


84  TIh'    Fn'tilifif    »f   the    Laiul. 

Iience  air,  moistun*  and  iKUirishnient  should  be  asso- 
<'iated  in  the  best  proportions  and  at  tlie  r  tjbt  dis- 
tance from   the  surface. 

Plowing  to  bring  fertility  to  the  .sjo/c/cf.— When 
water  passes  down  through  the  soil  it  carries  sonic 
fertility  with  it.  If  it  can  then  be  made  to  return, 
it  should,  in  part,  at  least,  restore  to  the  surface 
soil  what  would  otherwise  have  been  left  inert  in  thr* 
sub -soil.  )  Observant  farmers  are  often  heard  to  re- 
mark, during  a  dry  season,  that  the  following  season 
will  be  fruitful,  as  land  during  a  drought  becomes 
richer.  So  far  as  the  surface  soil  is  concerned,  this 
is  true,  for  the  water  which  passes  from  the  subsoil 
up  to  the  surface  by  capillarity  carries  with  it  some 
plant -food,  the  larger  part  of  which  is  nitrogen. 
A  part  of  the  water  thus  l)r()Ught  near  the  surface 
evaporates,  and  leaves  l)ehind  what  plant -food  it  held 
in  solution.  The  alkali  lands  of  the  plains  might  be 
cited  to  show  the  great  activity  of  capillarity  in 
bringing  soluble  material  to  the  surface.  By  irriga- 
tion the  deleterious  salts  of  these  lands  are  washed 
out,  or  rather  down,  and  the  soil  becomes  fruitful. 
})ut  if  the  land  is  not  kept  irrigated  the  salts  again 
come  to  the  surface  and  kill  the  plants.  Hilgard,  in 
his  report  on  alkali  lands,*  says:  ''The  most  obvious 
remedy  f(u-  this  evil  is,  of  course,  the  leaching  out 
of  the  injurious  salts  by  ditching  and  flooding,  or. 
if  possible,  by  underdraining.  This  method  is  ha))it- 
uallv    resorted    to     in     sea-coast    marshes,     near    the 


*" Alkali    l.Hiuls,    Irrigatiou   and    Draiuaite."    .\ppendix   to    Kept.    Cal.    Exf. 
Sta.  for  1890,   p.  -'7. 


The    Effect    of  Soil -crust.  85 

mouths  of  rivers,  after  tlie  salt  water  has  been  ex- 
cluded by  embankments.  *  *  *  When  the  alkali 
is  not  very  abundant  nor  very  noxious,  frequent  and 
deep  tillage  may  afford  all  the  relief  needed.  Beyond 
<)uestion  the  damage  done  by  alkali,  in  at  least  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  is  due  to  accumulation  at  or  near 
the  surface.  *  *  *  More  than  half  of  the  alkali 
land  in  this  state  that  the  people  are  afraid  to  touch 
requires  no  other  remedy  than  thorough,  deep  tillage, 
maintained  at  all  times."  I  cannot  forbear  quotiug 
entire  his  illustration,  to  show  how  hard  and  soft  sur- 
fac^e  soils  affect  moisture  :  "  The  dense  crust  absorbs 
water  much  more  powerfully  than  does  the  loose  soil 
beneath.  This  moisture  is  forcibly  drawn  from  the 
latter  into  the  surface  crust,  and  there  evaporates 
quickly  under  the  influence  of  the  air  and  sunshine, 
hardening  the  crust  more  and  more,  and  accumulat- 
ing therein  an  increasing  amount  of  alkali.  To 
illustrate  this,  imagine  a  sponge,  representing  the 
loose  soil,  to  be  saturated  with  water,  and  a  hard, 
burnt  brick,  representing  the  crust,  to  be  laid  upon 
it  ;  the  brick  will  take  all  the  water  from  the  sponge. 
Yet  if  the  brick  be  soaked  in  water  and  the  sponge 
pressed  on  it,  the  sponge,  representing  the  well-tilled 
soil,  will    not  take  up    a   particle  of   moisture." 

'if  the  plow  and  the  dry  earth -mulch  be  so  used 
as  to  promote  capillarity,  they  will  indirectly  assist 
in  bringing  fertility  within  reach  of  the  plantisJ 
Thorough  tillage  tends  to  multiply  rootlets.  Plants 
which  have  numerous  roots  are  capable  of  taking 
up   more    nourishment    than   those    which    have   few, 


86  The    Fertilify    of  ihe    Land. 

consequently  the  multiplication  of  roots  is  desirable, 
except  in  rare  instances  when  the  plants  make  such 
rapid  growth  that  they  fail  to  fruit  satisfactorily. 
The  root-pruninj,'  of  plants,  so  largely  advocated  .some 
years  since,  has  gone  out  of  practice,  and,  instead 
the  multiplication  and  preservation  of  them,  espe- 
cially the  smaller  ones,  is  now  .in  most  cases  held 
to  be  desirable.  Plowing  not  only  promotes  avail- 
able fertility,  but  also  increases  the  area  in  which 
nourishment  may  be  found,  and  the  plant  responds 
to  its  environment  by  sending  out  feeders  in  all 
directions.  However,  should  the  conditions  recom- 
mended prevent  as  early  and  full  fruiting  as  desired, 
it  is  wiser  to  hasten  it  l)y  withholding  nitrogenous 
manures  and  fertilizers  than  to  do  so  by  neglecting 
or    mutilating    the  roots. 

Ploir'nKj  fo  hnnj  irnsh. — The  object  of  plowing 
may  often  be  chiefly  to  bury  trash.  '  All  dead  and 
living  plants  and  coarse  manures  should  be  so  per- 
fectly covered  by  the  furrow  that  the  harrow  and 
cultivator  will  not  disturb  them,  or  become  ob- 
structed. /  If  the  furrow  be  narrow  and  shallow,  this 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  done.  It  is  true  that  there 
are  cases  in  which  a  shallow  furrow  is  desirable,  but 
a  narrow  furrow  nuiy  be  avoided  if  the  plow  has 
the  proper  form.  A  chain  attached  to  the  beam  of 
the  plow  and  the  end  of  the  double -tree  will  greatly 
assist  in  burying  tall  plants,  especially  if  the  jointer 
can  be  used  in  connection  with  it.  Coarse  manures 
may  be  raked  into  the  furrow  in  order  to  completely 
bury    them,  but    with    suitable  plows  and  attachments 


Vegetable    Matter   Plowed    Under.  87 

this  expensive  method  of  accomplishing  so  simple  an 
operation  is  not  necessary.  (See  "How  to  plow," 
page  90.) 

Mf  the  vegetable  matter  is  buried  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  surface,  where  it  will  be  kept  con- 
stantly moist,  it  decomposes  more  rapidly  than  if 
left  to  dry  on  oi-  near  the  surface.  /  Coarse  vege- 
table matter  used  to  form  a  mulch,  should  be  spread 
upon  the  land  after  the  cultivation  has  been  com- 
pleted. (  Vegetable  matter  plowed  under  may  warm 
the  soil,  and  furnish  nourishment  for  the  plants 
after  what  has  been  set  free  by  tillage  has  been 
largely  exhausted.) 

If  one  of  the  objects  of  plowing  is  to  bury  trash, 
it  can  be  accomplished  in  no  other  way  so  well  as 
with  a  strong  team  and  a  large,  fully  equipped   plow. 

TIMES    AND    METHODS    OF    PLOWING. 

When  to  plow. —  Land  should  be  plowed  when  in 
a  bad  physical  condition,  even  though  the  surface 
soil  contains  more  plant  nourishment  than  the  sub- 
surface does,  for  good  physical  conditions  are  quite  as 
necessary-,  perhaps  more  necessary,  than  an  abundance 
of  available  plant -food.  Whenever  it  is  found  that  it 
is  difficult  to  set  free  plant -food  and  form  a  satisfac- 
tory seed-bed  by  surface  tillage,  then  the  land  should 
be  plowed,  notwithstanding  the  additional  expense. 

Climatic  conditions,  together  with  the  character  of 
the  land  and  crop  to  be  raised,  must  determine  to  a 
large    extent   whether   the    plowing    would    better    be 


88  The    Fertiliijf   of  the    Land. 

done  iu  fall  or  spring'.  Clay  lands  in  some  cases 
may  be  greatly  benefited  if  thrown  into  high  ridges 
in  the  fall,  so  that  the  water  may  eseape,  and 
weathering  may  destroy  the  tenacity  of  the  soil  and 
liberate  mineral  matter.  In  corn  stnbble.  where 
there  is  little  danger  of  washing,  a  large,  deep  fnr- 
row  drawn  through  cacii  row  works  wonders,  and  is 
usually  more  eflficacious  in  making  the  land  fine  and 
"early"  than  if  the  entire  area  is  l)roken  up.  for  in 
the  latter  case  the  soil  is  likely  to  run  together 
and  become  hard  and  difficult  to  fit  in  the  spring. 
Other  "open  land"  than  corn  stubble  may  be  success- 
fully treated,  as  the  winter  approaches,  in  much  the 
same  way,  by  plowing  one  furrow  and  skipping  nearly 
two;  but  in  no  case  should  two  furrows  ])e  tui-ned 
together,  for  this  results  in  such  high  and  l)road 
ridges  that  they  are  not  easily  leveled  by  the  harrow 
before  replowing  in  the  spring.  If  but  single  furrows 
are  thrown  up  instead  of  double  ones,  they  may  be 
easily  leveled  by  chaining  a  scantling  crosswise  under 
the  front  end  of  the  harrow  and  driving  lengthwise 
of  the  furrows.  The  treatment  advised  above,  as  well 
as  that  which  follows,  may  result  in  liberating  much 
plant -food,  and  in  so  improving  the  physical  condi- 
tions of  the  soil  as  to  make  it  possible  for  plar.ts 
to  avail  themselves  of  it.  It  is  true  that  all  this 
implies  additional  labor,  but  if  soils  that  are  cold, 
wet  and  hard  to  fit  iu  the  spring  can  be  made 
friable,  and  the  time  of  sowing  advanced,  may  not 
the  fall  plowing,  in  the  outcome,  be  advantageous  ? 
With  rare  exceptions,  autumn   plowing  should  be  done 


Early   Plowing   and   Solving.  80 

Ctirly,  and  while  the  ground  is  fairly  dry.  The  work 
should  be  performed  when  there  is  most  leisure, 
unless  there  are  compensating  advantages  to  be  gained 
l)y  deferring  it,  as  the  cost  is  less  and  the  work  is 
likely  to  be  better  done.  Early  fall  plowing  is 
usually  beneficial,  even  though  shallow  replowing  is 
necessarj'  in  the  spring,  and  a  fall  "catch  crop"  has 
to  be  sown  on  light  lands  to  prevent  them  from 
leaching  during  the  rainy  months.  In  the  great 
wheat  districts  of  the  northwest,  where  the  winters 
are  dry  and  cold,  fall  plowing  should  be  and  is 
the  common  practice.  Weathering  of  the  soil  is  a 
more  economical  method  of  setting  free  plant -food 
than  surface  tillage,  and  when  certain  conditions  ai-e 
present,  as  bard  freezing  and  light  rains,  and  when 
a  goodly  interval  comes  between  the  harvesting  of  one 
crop  and  the  planting  of  the  next,  it  can  be  prac- 
ticed successfully.  If  the  rand  is  infested  with 
wire-worms  late  fall  plowing  will  destroy  many  of 
them.* 

Spring  plowing  is  best  done  early,  if  the  soil  is 
in  proper  condition,  and  it  may  be  done  even  when 
slightly  too  wet,  provided  some  little  freezing  fol- 
lows. Since  early  sowing  is  of  prime  importance 
if  plump  gi-ain  and  bright  straw  are  desired  and  rust 
is  to  be  prevented,  some  risk  may  be  taken  in  this  di- 
rection. On  damp,  rich  lands,  late -sown  cereals,  es- 
pecially oats,  are  likely  to  suffer  from  fungous  dis- 
eases, which  result  in  diminished  quantity  and  im- 
paired quality.      Ground   intended   for   the  production 


*For  the  treatment  of  wire-worms,  see  Bull.  o3,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 


90  The    FerfilHtf    of  the    Land. 

of  maize  is  improved  l)y  early  plowing,  unless  the 
land  is  occupied  l)y  clover,  when  it  may  be  wiser  to 
defer  the  plowing  for  a  time,  in  order  that  the 
clover  may  make  some  growth  before  being  turned 
under.  In  this  case,  the  gain  in  the  growtli  of 
the  clover  may  more  than  compensate  for  the  plant- 
food  which  is  liberated  by  the  early  plowing  and  the 
weathering. 

When  not  to  plow. — If  a  good  seed-bed  can  be 
prepared  easily,  and  the  surface  is  richer  than  the 
sub -surface  soil,  as  in  a  well -tilled  potato  field,  then 
the  ground  may  be  sown  to  grain  without  plowing, 
more  especially  if  the  i)receding  crop  was  a  deep- 
rooted   one. 

When  the  land  is  producing  a  reasonable  harvest 
of  hay,  and  the  i)lants  arc  i)crennial,  it  is  not  well 
to  destroy  them  and,  after  laborious  effort,  harvest 
those  of  less  value,  as  not  infrequently  occurs  when 
timothy  sod  on  clay  land  is  broken  up  and  planted 
to    maize. 

It  is  well  understood  that  it  injures  land  to  plow 
it  when  wet  ;  it  is  not  so  well  known  that  land 
may  be  injured  by  plowing  when  too  dry,  for  if 
the  soil  becomes  very  dry  or  dust -like,  it  is  likely  to 
be  beaten  down  and  puddled  by  heavy  rains.  Land 
■which  is  designed  for  fall  sowing  would  best  be  plowed 
at  least  one  month  before  the  sowing  takes  place,  as 
wheat  and  like  cereals  love  a  cool  and  compacted  sub- 
surface soil. 

Hoir  Id  jtlow. — In  midsummer  and  fall,  deep  plow- 
ing is  desirable  ;    in  early  spring,  rather   shallow  fur- 


Surface    Drainage   by    Wide    Lands. 


01 


rows  are  usually  best,  as  the 
sub -surface  soil  is  much  colder 
and  wetter  than  the  surface  soil. 
These  are  meant  to  apply,  of 
course,  to  the  management  of 
hind  in  farm  crops,  and  not 
necessarily  to  orchards.  Ma- 
nures and  other  decaying  matter 
should  not  be  turned  under 
deeply  in  the  spring,  for  if 
left  near  the  surface  they  decay 
quickly,  and  the  roots  of  the 
growing  plants  are  able  to  feed 
upon  them  early  in  the  season. 
In  the  spring  the  land  should 
be  "struck  out,"  so  that  the 
turning  at  the  ends  may  be 
towards  the  right  (or  the  left  with 
a  left-hand  plow),  that  no  tram- 
pling of  the  plowed  earth  may 
occur.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
season  it  is  desirable  to  keep 
the  land  loose  and  light,  in 
order  that  warmth  may  be  ab- 
sorbed and  moisture  evaporated. 
If  there  is  danger  that  evapora- 
tion will  go  on  too  rapidly,  the 
surface  tillage  of  the  soil  should 
follow  the  plowing  closely.  While 
the  fining  and  compacting  which 
result  from  the  trampling  of   the 


\    \ 


i\  -1^         i't    1} 


92  The    Fertility   of  the   Land. 

horses'  feet,  when  the  land  is  dry,  is  often  desirable 
if  distributed  over  the  field,  solidified  places,  caused 
by  turning  at  the  ends  of  the  lands,  are  to  be  avoided 
in  the  spring.  It  has  become  far  too  common  to 
leave  the  field  with  few  or  no  open  furrows ;  this 
may  do  where  it  is  thoroughly  drained,  or  the  soil 
sufficiently  porous  to  allow  the  water  to  percolate 
through  the  subsoil  in  a  reasonable  time,  but  there 
are  many  fields  in  which  the  open  furrows  should 
not  be  more  than  ten  to  fifteen  i)aces  apart.  It 
is  not  difficult  for  a  skilful  plowman  to  leave  the 
surface  in  great,  gentle  swells  and  in  suitable  condi- 
tion for  the  passage  of  the  harvesting  machinery. 
On  clay  land,  where  damage  is  likely  to  occur  from 
water  standing  on  the  surface,  the  ridges  of  the 
lands  may  be  in  the  same  i)la('e  for  several  succes- 
sive plowings,  provided  the  two  furrows  of  which 
they  are  composed  are  not  overlapped,  and  the 
ridges  ai-e  split  and  thrown  Ijack  when  the  land 
is  not  in  sod,  and  the  open  furrows  are  partly 
filled  by  light  back-furrows  and  harrowings.  (See 
"Surface  Tillage,"  page   99). 

Plowing  ''lands"  of  five  to  seven  paces  do  not  so 
effectually  drain  off  the  surface  water  of  nearly  level 
lands  (see  Fig.  19)  as  those  of  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  paces  d(»,  because  not  enough  water  is  carried 
into  any  one  of  the  dead-furrow.s  to  produce  a  cur- 
rent sufficient  to  overcome  the  obstruction  offered  by 
clods  and   friction. 

The  open  furrows  which  divide  the  narrow  lands 
(r,    f/   and    *-  )    have    stagnant     water    in    them,  while 


Floiv    of    Wafer    IncreaaeA. 


93 


which    divide    the    wide    lands    are 
Concentration    of   water   tends    to 
A    striking 


those    (fl    and    h) 
free   from    water. 

move  it,  division  to  bring  it  to  rest 
illustration  of  the  latter  is  seen  in 
the  cultivated  fields  of  the  south, 
where  the  cotton  ridges  are  laid 
nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  steep- 
est incline,  thereby  preventing  wash- 
ing by  too  rapid  fall  and  In' 
division.  The  jetties  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi may  serve  to  illustrate  the 
principle  of  increasing  tlow  and 
scouring  by  concentration  of  water. 
Tsually  the  lighter  the  soil,  the  shal- 
lowei-  the  plowing,  except  when  it 
has  received  liberal  dressings  of  barn 
manures,  or  has  acquired  a  large 
amount  of  vegetable  matter  from 
other  sources,  when  the  plowing  may 
V)e  done  as  experience  shows  will  give 
the  most  profitable  results.  In  mar- 
ket-gardening, three  to  five  cords 
of  maniire  are  sometimes  applied  per 
acre  for  several  consecutive  years;  the 
soil  will  then  contain  a  superabun- 
dance of  nitrogen  and  hunuis,  and 
will  retain  moisture,  and  all  the  rules 
for  plowing  light  lands  may  be  broken  with  impunitj'. 
Thorough  and  deep  plowing  is  most  economically 
performed  with  a  large  sulky  plow  and  three  or 
more  strong    horses,  except  when   the  fields  are  small, 


Fig  20.  Diagram  of 
proper  arrange- 
ment of  driving 
lines  for  three 
horses 


94  Thf     Ferfitify    of   the    ImikI. 

irregular  or  hilly,  when  uu  unmounted  plow  and  two 
horses  may  bo  nsfd  to  best  advantage.  Three  horses 
abreast  should  not  be  driven  with  double  check -lines, 
as  their  months  soon  become  sore  from  the  bits 
being  drawn  through  them  by  the  (tonplings  which 
connect  the  horses.  Two  extra  checks,  buckled  to 
the  doul)le  lines  just  back  of  where  they  branch, 
will  allow  free  motion  of  the  head  of  each  horse 
without  disturbing  its  mates.  Fig.  20  explains  the 
an*angement  of  the  lines,  the  bits  being  represented 
by    R,  I,   T. 

Fast -walking,  strong  horses  not  only  get  through 
with  more  work,  but  do  better  work  than  slow- 
walking,  light  teams  do;  for.  within  certain  limits,  the 
faster  the  plow  moves  the  better  the  pulverization. 
In  stony  land,  where  a  slow  pace  is  desired,  it  is 
pleasanter  to  restrain  a  lively  team  than  to  urge  a 
slow  one  up  to  a  business  gait.  The  team  should 
be  able  to  draw-  a  plow  at  a  rapid  walk  for  nearly 
five  houi-s  consecutively  ;  nine  to  ten  hours  of  actual 
work  per  day  is  all  that  should  lie  required.  It  is 
bad  economy  to  sit  on  the  plow  handles  to  kill 
time  while  the  horses  an;  storing  energy  to  proceed. 
One  may  know  how  to  plow  well  but  l)e  unable  to 
do  so,  if  furnished  with  a  spider- legged  team  which 
has  had  to  spend  the  greater  part  of  the  night  in 
getting  its  food  from  sorrel -covered  hillsides.  On 
fairly  level  fields  of  twenty  acres  and  upward,  four 
to  six  horses  nuiy  be  nsed  to  a  gang  of  two  or  three 
plows,  and  the  plowing  will  be  done  eheajiei-  and 
l>etter    than    by    dividing    the    teams    and    gang    into 


Wi<J('    Fiu-roirs    and    (Jorrugaffd    Surf  (tee.  1).") 

three  separate  outfits,  requiring  two  additional  plow- 
men   to  operate. 

In  changing  potential  into  actual  plant -food,  econ- 
omy and  efficiency  both  demand  larger  fields,  even 
if  some  of  the  inside  fences  have  to  be  removed  and 
portable  ones  substituted  for  a  part  of  them  when 
needed.  The  width  of  the  furrow  should  be  slightly 
greater  than  the  plow  can  cut,  as  it  is  easier  and 
l)etter  to  tear  off  two  or  three  inches  than  to  cut  it, 
and  this  may  be  done  even  where  Canada  thistles  are 
present,  as  they  are  injured  more  by  having  their 
heads  turned  under  than  ))y  having  their  roots  cut 
otf.  The  more  difficult  the  land  is  to  cultivate,  the 
more  corrugated, —  not  cloddy, —  the  plow  should 
leave  the  surface ;  this  is  especially  true  of  land 
likely  to  run  together  during  abundant  rains. 

Six  well -broken  horses,  either  two  or  three  abreast, 
may  be  driven  with  a  single  line,  as  is  done  in  Cali- 
fornia ;  this  may  also  be  done  with  a  single  three- 
horse  team.  When  several  teams  are  used  together, 
all  but  the  beam  horses  may  have  their  double -ti-ees 
attached  to  a  chain  run  through  the  ring  of  the 
neck-yoke  of  the  beam  team,  or  each  liorse  may  have 
his  traces  hooked  to  the  ring  in  the  hames  of  the 
horse  behind  ;  though  this  method  is  the  most  con- 
venient, it  disturbs  the  true  line  of  draft,  and  is  hard 
on  the  necks  of  the  beam  horses.  If  thus  attached, 
the  smallest  team  should  be  placed  at  the  rear  and 
the   largest  ahead. 

Line  of  draff  in  plows. — Both  the  English  and 
French    use   longer   traces    and    plow -beams    than    the 


96 


The    Fertility   of  the    Ixtnd. 


Americans  do.  The  fashion  set  us  by  our  foreign 
ancestors  would  no  doubt  have  been  followed  if 
stumpy  fields  had  not  taught  us  that  short  traces 
and    plow-beams   are    more   convenient.      The    normal 

line  of  draft  is  at 
i-igiit  angles  to  the 
phme  of  tiie  horses' 
shoulders  and  in  a 
straight  line  from 
the  point  of  greatest 
resistance  through 
the  clevis  at  the  end 
of  the  beam  to  the 
point  at  which  the 
traces  are  atta<'he(l 
to  the  hanies.  — 
Horses  api)ear  to 
work  easier  with 
short  traces,  ]>ecause 
the  line  of  draft  is 
raised  at  tiie  hames.  If  the  work  is  at  all  severe, 
this  materially  helps  them  to  secure  a  firm  footing, 
while  it  relieves  some  of  the  friction  of  the  sole  of 
the  plow.  While  this  holds  good  with  unmounted 
plows,  short  traces  do  not  relieve  friction  when  the 
plow  is  mounted. 

A  piece  of  iron  sixteen  inches  long  and  five- 
eighths  inch  by  two  inches,  i)icrced  with  three 
holes  at  suitable  distances,  standing  vertically, 
makes  a  light,  handy  three-horse  evener.  This  is 
shown  in   Fig.   21       The    holes    of   all    eveners   should 


Fig.  21.     A   hinuly   three-horse  eveuer   mailo   of 
hiir  iroii. 


The   Evener. 


97 


be  placed  in  line,  or  they  are  not  eveners.  If  the 
center  hole  is  ahead  of  the  end  holes,  then  the  weak 
or  stumbling  horse  that  falls  behind  has  the  short 
end  of   the  lever  (6  to  c,  Fig.  22),  and   must  do  more 


Fig.  22.    Diagram  showing  the  mechanics  of  the  evener. 

than  half  of  the  work  before  he  regains  his  position. 
If  the  evener  is  furnished  with  a  staple  at  the  rear 
side  in  the  middle,  and  the  ends  with  clips,  instead 
of    clevises,    as   is    quite   common,    then    the    reverse 


98  The    Fertility    of  the    Tjonti. 

conditions  of  those  shown  in  Fig.  'I'l  will  be  pres- 
ent, and  the  horse  that  falls  behind  will  do  less 
than  its  mate.  To  obviate  all  unevenness  of  an 
evener,  always  place  the  three  points  of  attach- 
ment  carefully    in    line. 

Narrow  furrows  hav(^  always  been  recommended, 
a.s  it  was  believed  that  the  best  i)l()wing  could  not 
be  done  with  wide  furrows  ;  this  was  true  with  the 
old,  imperfect  moldboard,  but  with  the  improved 
one  good  work  can  be  done,  even  though  the  fur- 
row be  two  or  three  times  as  wide  as  it  is  deep. 
The  wider  the  furrow  within  reasonable  limits,  the 
cheaper  the  plowing  can  l)e  done ;  the  same  liolds 
true  as  to  depth,  since  \\\o  power  to  draw  the 
plow  does  not  increase  in  the  same  proportion  as 
does  the  square  of  the  furrow -slice.  If  a  furrow  six 
inches  deep  by  ten  inches  wide  (sixty  square  inches) 
requires  200  pounds  of  energy,  400  pounds  will  not 
be  required  by  one  eight  inches  deep  by  fifteen 
inches  wide    (120  square  inches). 

Anderson  *  secured  the  following  results  from  a 
trial    of   drafts   of   plows  : 

Depth  of  furrow.       Aver,  width.        Sq.  in.  in        Aver,  dnift.         Draft  per 

furrow.  sq.  in. 

7  inches.  12.74  inches.  89.18  :J53.9    lbs.  ;t.JK>  lbs. 

10      ••  13.4(5        •  i:54.(i  441.49    "  :J.28    " 

These  results  agree  in  the  main  with  those  secured 
by  Prof.  J.  W.  Sanborn,  1888  (Missouri  Bulletin  32). 

At  the  Utica  Plow  Trial,  in  18G7.  the  increase 
was    found    to  be  about     10   i)or    cent    for    each     addi- 

*  Tb««U  praaented  to  CorneU   UniverBity  by  Leroy  Audervou,   B.S.,  IHMi. 


Conserving    Moiafurc    hy    Tilhn/c.  00 

lional  inch  in  depth.  When  the  width  varied  and 
the  depth  was  constant,  the  following  results  were 
secured  : 


Depth  of  furrow.       Aver,  width.        Sq.  in.  in  Aver,  draft.  Draft  per 

furrow.  .sq.  in. 

7  inches.  10.9    inches.  76.3  iM.go  lbs.  :j.85  lbs. 

7      "  14.04      "  98.28  :i(i:!.87    "  :{.7      '' 

7      "  17.74      "  124.18  44.5.19    "  ti.HS    " 


SURFACE     TILLAGE. 

Tlie  results  of  surface  tillage,  like  plowing,  maj- 
be  simple  or  complex.  The  prime  object  is  usually 
to  form  a  smooth,  fine  seed -lied,  l)ut  unw^ittingly 
the  other  objects  secured  may  lie  of  far  more  im- 
portance than  the  one  sought.  Seeds  which  are 
small  require  shallow  covering,  hence  they  demand  a 
seed-bed  made  extremely  fine,  and  which  may  be 
compacted  with  the  roller  aftei-  seeding  to  prevent 
too  free  circulation  of  air  and  to  l)ring  moisture 
to  the  surface  ;  in  the  case  of  large  seeds,  which 
require  deep  covering,  the  surface  need  be  only  fine 
enough  to  induce  capillarity  to  bring  water  near  the 
surface.  Plants  which  throw  out  roots  near  the  sur- 
face should  receive  shallow  surface  tillage,  while  those 
which  root  deeply  may  have  deep  tillage.  The  aim 
should  be  to  prevent  the  water  from  rising  above 
the  earth    in  which  the  roots  are  feeding. 

A  corrugated  surface,  produced  by  deep  tillage, 
may  be  i-esorted  to  for  drying  the  land  in  extreme 
cases  ;   hence  it    is   just  the  reverse  of  what  is  desired 


100  The    Feriilihi   of  fhe    Ixtnd. 

ill  dry  weatlier,  as  it  exposes  a  larger  surface  to 
tlie  action  of  the  wind  and  sun  than  a  smooth  sur- 
face does.  Surface  tillage  may  be  made  not  only 
to  conserve  moisture,  but  to  set  free  plant -food  ; 
if  the  plants  are  deep-rooted,  they  may  secure 
only  a  small  part  of  the  food  liberated  by  till- 
age. This  emphasizes  the  need  of  ,  deep  plowing 
and  deep  surface  preparation  of  the  land  for  all 
tap -rooted  plants ;  with  shallow -rooted  ones  deep 
tillage  is  not  so  imperative.  Too  much  stress  can- 
not be  laid  on  the  necessity  of  superior  surface  till- 
age for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  mulch  of  fine 
earth  to  conserve  moisture,  and  for  promoting  filtra- 
tion of  water  and  the  easy  passage  of  moisture  up- 
wards to  the  mulch.  Whenever  heavy  rains  have 
produced  a  (;rust,  it  should  be  l)rokcn  up  by  tillage 
as  soon  as  the  land  is  in  a  suitable  condition,  that 
the  earth -mulch  may  l)c  restored  and  evaporation 
arrested.  The  philosophy  of  the  surface  mulch  is 
explained    in    Chapter    IV. 

Usually  the  mulch  is  not  preserved  long  enough 
in  inter-tilled  crops.  The  best  results  cannot  be 
reached  if  tlic  foliage  of  the  plant  is  not  kept 
healthy  and  active,  and  it  cannot  be  kept  so  with- 
out a  supply  of  moisture,  especially  during  the 
flowering  and  fruiting  period.  The  yield  of  inter- 
tilled crops  is  greatly  increa.sed  if  the  earth -mulch 
is    preserved    intact    until    late   in   the  season. 

In  the  orchards  in  Sacramento  Valley,  California, 
the  trees  are  usually  loaded  to  the  earth  with  fruit, 
the  great,  broad,  green    leaves  of    one   tree   touching 


Tilling   to    Desfrotf    Weeds.  101 

those  ot  its  neighbor,  and  yet  irrigation  is  not  prac- 
ticed, though  rain  seldom  falls  from  the  last  of 
April  to  the  first  of  October.  As  one  sinks  to  the 
shoe  latchets  in  the  soft,  dusty  earth  of  these  fruit- 
ful lands,  lie  is  led  to  appreciate  the  power  of  cap- 
illarity to  bring  moisture  to  the  rootlets,  and  the 
efficiency  of  a  deep -earth  mulch  to  conserve  it.  The 
winter  rains  fill  the  subsoil  with  water,  the  deep, 
dry  earth -mulch  of  four  inches  or  more  arrests 
evaporation,  capillary  attraction  lifts  the  water  from 
the  sub -reservoir  to  the  rootlets  and  as  high  as  the 
under  surface  of  the  earth -mulch,  and  thus  by  scien- 
tific treatment  of  the  soil  the  orchards  are  carried 
safely    through    a   drought    of    five  months'    duration. 

When  the  object  of  surface  tillage  is  mainly  to 
destroy  weeds  and  grass,  then  it  should  be  given 
l)efore  they  have  become  firmly  fastened  in  the  soil 
by  their  roots,  or,  still  better,  before  they  have  ap- 
peared above  ground.  Perennial  plants  are  likely  to 
live  through  the  year  and  appear  the  following  sea- 
son in  a  vigorous  condition,  if  allowed  to  form  leaves 
a  few  times  during  the  summei*.  There  are  two 
periods  when  plants  may  be  most  easily  destroyed  : 
before  they  emerge  from  the  ground,  and  when  in 
blossom . 

Spring- toothed  implements,  or  those  of  a  similar 
character,  serve  best  for  destroying  annual  weeds  ; 
the  })low,  the  spade  and  the  mattock  are  l)est  Avhen 
hardy  perennial  weeds  are  to  be  eradicated.  The 
scythe,  though  used  lai-gely  in  lieu  of  the  last-named 
implements,  is    never    an     entire     success,    for    it    per- 


102  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

nuts  some  growth  to  continue,  and  the  weeds,  though 
weakened,  are  not  killed.  Frequently  the  chief  bene- 
fit secured  by  surface  tillage  in  the  spring  is  at 
first  increased  warmth  ;  later  it  may  tend  to  prevent 
cooling  by  evaporation.  If  crop.s  are  inter- tilled 
every  ten  days,  all  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
inter- culture  may  be  expected,  as  more  frequent  till- 
age does  little  good  and  tends  to  arrest  growth,  as 
rootlets  are  broken  and  the  plants  bruised  unneces- 
sarily. With  shallow -rooted  plants,  as  maize,  the 
inter- tillage  should  be  as  deep  as  practicable  at  first, 
that  the  soil  nuiy  be  prepared  thoroughly  before  the 
roots  have  entered  it,  and  shallower  later  on,  in 
order  that  the  i-ootlets  may  be  disturbed  as  little 
as  possible.  Tillage  should  not  proceed  so  far  .is 
to  convert  the  soil  into  dust,  or  it  may  puddle  and 
bake  during  and  after  heavy  rains.  Inter-cultural 
tillage  is  most  economically  performed  by  the  use  of 
a  two-horse  team  and  wheel  cultivator.    - 

Implements  for  surf  ore  fiJIitif/. — The  roller  may 
greatly  facilitate  the  fitting  of  the  land  in  two 
ways,  by  so  compacting  it  that  other  implements 
act  effectually,  and  by  l)rcaking  clods.  Kolling  after 
the  seeding  hastens  germination  in  di*y  weather,  l)e- 
cause  it  increases  the  capillarity  of  the  soil  by  com- 
l)acting  it  and,  therefore,  brings  moisture  to  the  very 
surface.  In  the  spring,  the  rolling  of  heavy  lands  will 
be  detrimental  if  abundant  rains  should  follow,  but 
beneficial  if  dry  weather  follows.  The  roller  may 
be  used  in  many  wajs  to  assist,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, in  securing  the  objects    sought  ;   viz.  liberation 


Broad   vs.    Narroiv    Harrows.  103 

of  plant -food,  improvement  of  physical  conditions, 
increasing  of  capillarity  at  the  surface,  hastening 
germination  of  small  seeds,  and  preparing  a  smooth 
surface.  The  roller  is  a  useful  implement,  but  it 
re((uires  good  judgment  and  some  experience  to  know 
when    and   Avhere   to   use    it. 

Flankers  are  often  more  efficacious  in  fining  and 
filling  the  interstices  of  the  surface  soil  than  rollers 
are,  for  instead  of  pushing  the  clods  into  the  soft 
soil  they  grind  them,  and  leave  the  surface  smooth 
and   fine   for   the    reception    of   small    seeds. 

Harrowing  tools  may  be  classified  under  three 
general  heads  :  those  which  tend  to  press  the  soil 
down  while  fining  it,  those  which  tend  to  lift  it  up, 
and  those  which  tend  to  slice  it.  Of  the  first  class, 
the  harrow  or  drag  may  be  cited.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, the  harrow  may  be  defined  as  the  implement 
in  which  the  teeth  project  so  far  through  the  frame 
that  its  bars  do  not  level  or  grind  the  clods,  while 
in  the  drag  the  teeth  are  short  and  the  bars  serve 
to  grind  and  level  the  soil.  In  most  cases,  the 
latter  implement  is  to  be  preferred,  since  in  any  case 
the  teeth  do  not  enter  the  soil  but  a  little  way. 
Long  teeth  are  objectionable,  as  they  tend  to  clog, 
and  prevent  the  harrow  from  doing  a  part  of  its 
legitimate  work!  There  are  many  reasons  why  the 
harrow  should  be  spread  over  a  large  surface,  the 
chief  of  which  are  that  it  runs  steadier,  is  less  likely 
to  become  obstructed,  and  does  not  so  easily  dodge 
the  hard  places.  It  also  is  more  efficient  in  level- 
ing the  inequalities   than  a  compactly  built    harrow  is. 


104 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


and  much  ground  may  be  gotten  over  where  only 
a  light  harrowing  is  desired,  while  in  rough  ground 
a  half  lap  may  be  taken  or  the  ground  gone  over 
twice,  thus  increasing  efficiency  by  attacking  the 
clods  from  two  directions.  The  common  harrow 
may   not   only   be    spread   over    a   large  area    to   ad- 


Pi(f.  23.    A  good  gniig-plow  for  shallow  tilling. 

vantage,  but  it  is  best  when  made  large  and  heavy. 
One  has  only  to  observe  how  inefficient  the  half  of 
a  harrow  is  when  used  alone,  to  be  convinced  that 
it  is  economy  to  use  large  ones.  Those  which  are 
mounted  on  wheels  are  more  efficient  than  those 
which  are  not,  as  they  run  more  steadily  and  are 
more  readily  managed. 

The    second    class     comprises     the    spring -toot  hod 


Tillage   Implements.  105 

harrows,  which  are  really  cultivators,  and  should  be 
classed  with  them.  The  action  of  the  third  class  — 
as  the  "Acme" — somewhat  resembles  that  of  the 
plow,  since  it  first  cuts  and  then  gi'inds  the  soil. 
The  land  and  the  condition  in  which  it  is  left  by 
the  plow  vary  so  widely  that  it  is  difficult  to  fore- 
roll  which  of  these  classes  of  implements  will  be 
most  efficient   for  the  power   expended. 

Cultivators  are  of  numberless  patterns. — In  the 
west  the  teeth  of  these  implements  are  usually 
made  with  a  flat  or  flattisli  surface  in  front,  while 
in  the  east  they  usually  have  a  rounded  front.  The 
former  are  by  far  the  most  efficient,  as  they  compel 
one  portion  of  the  soil  to  grind  another  by  the 
sharp  contact  necessary  to  push  the  soil  to  the 
right  and  left,  while  the  rounded  tooth  allows  the 
earth  to  escape  with  less  pulverization.  Most  cul- 
tivators fail  to  cut  and  destroy  all  tough,  tap -rooted 
plants,  as  Canada  thistles  and  docks.  Wherever  a 
gang- plow  especially  made  for  shallow  tillage  can 
be  substituted  for  them,  the  work  will  be  more 
satisfactorily  performed.  Three  small  mounted  mold- 
boards,  with  share  attached  to  each,  ciitting  ten 
in(;hes  wide  and  three  to  four  inches  deep,  make  a 
most  efficient  implement  in  many  cases  for  preparing 
a  seed-bed.  (8ee  Fig.  23.)  There  are  many  other 
implements  adapted  to  local  conditions  and  special 
crops  which  may  be  made  to  assist  in  jjreparing  the 
soil  and  in    liberating  fertility. 

It  is  believed  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when    wheat,  oats   and    barley,    and    indeed    all    grains 


106  The    Fertility   of  the   Land. 

that  are  now  broadcasted  or  drilled,  will  re(;eive  in- 
ter-cultural tillage  similar  to  that  now  given  to 
maize,  and  this  will  not  be  by  hand,  as  in  some 
portions  of  Europe,  but  by  horse -hoe  tillage.  It  is 
fully  realized  that  two  to  three  times  as  much  seed 
is  now  sown  as  is  necessary  to  produce  a  maximum 
crop,  were  it  not  necessary  to  crowd  out  and  re- 
press the  weeds  by  thick  seeding.  When  too  many 
plants  are  present  they  unnecessarily  rob  the  soil  of 
plant-food,  and  especially  of  moisture  ;  hence  all  the 
plants  are  dwarfed,  and  notwithstanding  their  vast 
number  the  yield  is,  as  in  wheat,  reduced  to  less 
than  one -half  of  a  moderate  crop,  and  one -third  of 
what  might  be  secured  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions. 

The  unsatisfactory  residts  secured  during  the  last 
few  years  by  seeding  to  grass  and  clover  with  one 
of  the  cereal  crops  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  this 
practice  will  sooner  or  later  have  to  be  discontinued. 
In  fact,  the  practice  of  plowing  and  fitting  the  stub- 
ble lands  in  August,  and  of  sowing  grass  and  dovei- 
without  an  associate  crop,  has  been  adopted  in  many 
cases.  The  results  reached  by  tliis  method  are  en- 
tirely satisfactory,  as  a  full  crop  of  liay  is  secui*ed 
the  following  year.  Heretofore,  the  objection  to  seed- 
ing without  an  associate  crop  has  been  urged  that  one 
season  or  crop  was  lost.  Since  the  lesson  of  pre- 
paring the  soil  thoroughly  and  of  sowing  early  has 
been  better  learned,  this  objection  has  been  entirely 
overcome,  so  it  is  probable  that  on  small  areas  on 
high-priced    land,    the   yield    per   acre   of   wheat    and 


The   Farmer's    Chief  Aim.  107 

similar  crops  will  be  more  than  doubled  by  some 
method  of  inter -cultural  tillage,  and  that  the  practice 
of  early  fall  seeding  to  grass  and  clover  without  an 
associate   crop  will  become  more  and  more  common. 

He  who  has  spent  but  a  single  summer  toiling 
long  days  in  the  fierce  sun,  stubbing  his  toes  against 
the  numerous  clods  and  stones  while  wiping  his  brow 
of  the  sweat  and  dust  will,  it  is  hoped,  catch  the 
spirit  of  this  long  chapter,  in  which  the  aim  has 
been  to  show  how  toil  may  be  changed  into  inspiring 
and  wisely  directed  work,  and  how  the  dull  clods  of 
earth  may  be  transformed  into  joyous  life  by  the  least 
expenditure  of  physical  exertion. 

In  all  this  effort,  the  object  should  be  to  more 
wisel.y  direct  the  forces  of  nature,  in  order  that 
larger  and  more  beneficial  results  may  be  secured 
with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  human  muscle. 
There  are  vast  dormant  energies — animal  muscle, 
steam  and  water,  electricity  —  which,  when  well  di- 
rected, may  so  greatly  ease  the  burdens  of  rural 
life  as  to  make  the  farm  a  pleasure,  even  though  the 
actual  cost  of  the  operations  may  not  be  reduced. 
If  the  introduction  of  the  reaping  machine  had  been 
of  no  value  in  farm  economy,  the  invention  would 
still  have  been  worth  the  while,  because  of  the 
mental  uplift  which  it  gives  the  farmer's  boy  who 
learns   how   to   manage   it. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

CONSERVATION  OF   MOISTURE. 

In  the  preceding  diapters  refeivnee  has  frequently 
been  made  to  the  conservation  or  saving  of  mois- 
ture, the  capillarity  of  the  soil,  and  the  earth -mulch. 
It  will  now  be  profitable  to  enquire  nion*  specifically 
into  these  mattei*s.  To  the  careful  observer,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  cultivated  plants  suffer  far  ni<>re  from  lack 
of  moisture  than  from  lack  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  in  the  soil  ;  that  is  to  say,  nearly  all 
soils  would  respond  to  tillage  in  a  most  satisfactory 
manner  were  there  an  ample  supply  of  moisture  for 
the  use  of  the  plants  at  all  times.  This  is  so  self- 
evident  that  it  need  not  be  illustrated  or  proved. 
Then,  without  hesitation  or  modification,  it  may  be 
Slid  that  the  problem  of  providing  a  suitable  supply 
of  moisture  for  growing  plants  should  be  carefully 
considered  when  a  study  is  made  of  the  science  and 
aij^^^agricnlture.  Tons  of  farm  products  lay  rot- 
ti^^^fong  the  Ohio  river  a  few  years  since  because 
the  water  was  so  low  that  they  could  not  be  carried 
to  the  market.  Tons  of  plant -food  remain  unused 
and  useless  in  the  soil  of  the  farm  for  lack  of  mois- 
ture to  transport  the  waiting  nourishment  into  the 
living  plants.     It  can  hardly    be    too   strongly  erapha- 

(108) 


Moisture   of  Prime   Importance.  109 

sized  that  the  subject  of  moisture,  how  to  secure  it, 
how  to  conserve  it,  and  how  to  use  it,  is  the  one 
that  should  receive  the  most  scientific,  the  most  care- 
ful and  persistent  investigation  that  the  farmer  is 
able  to  give,  for  without  moisture  nothing  can  pass 
into  or  out  of  circulation. 

The  gist  of  the  whole  matter  is  this ;  The  soil 
is  a  sponge,  holding  water  by  capillary  attraction  ; 
in  dry  weather  the  moisture  passes  upward  by 
capillary  movement,  the  water  from  below  taking  the 
place  of  that  which  evaporates  from  the  surface  ;  the 
rate  of  this  upward  flow  depends  greatly  upon  the 
compactness  or  capillary  continuity  of  the  soil  ;  if 
some  non- capillary  body  is  placed  on  the  soil,  evap- 
oration is  checked;  this  non -capillary  body  may  be 
a  mulch  of  straw  or  manure,  or  better,  a  mulch  of 
loose  dry  soil, — the  "earth-mulch"  of  which  we  have 
spoken. 

If  water  is  allowed  to  flow  off  the  field  and 
forest  unnecessarily  when  it  is  abundant,  it  (iannot 
be  returned  except  b}"  expensive  appliances  and  much 
labor.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States  it 
is  wiser  to  store  and  hold  back  the  moisture  in  the 
soil  to  the  point  at  which,  if  more  were  stored,  it 
would  be  injurious.  It  has  already  been  shown  how 
the  moisture  -  storage  capacity  of  the  soil  can  be  in- 
creased without  injury  to  its  productive  power  by 
deep  tillage.  Something  has  also  been  said  incidt^n- 
tally  on  the  conservation  of  moisture.  There  are 
various  methods,  one  or  all  of  which  are  always  at 
hand,    by   which    both    water    and    moisture    may    be 


no  7'A^    FcHUifij    of   flu     hnnl. 

saved  or  economized  for  tlic  use  of  growiii}^  plants 
throughout  the  season. 
\  Shading  by  cutting  off  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
reduces  evaporation,  and  may  indirectly  slightly  in- 
crease the  (capillary  action  of  the  soil,  thereby  ena- 
bling it  to  bring  up  more  moisture  from  below,  and 
also  preventing  the  excessive  evaporation  of  it  from 
the  surface.  '  Brush,  leaves,  maize  stalks,  and  other 
refuse  material,  and  even  fine  earth,  act  most  benefi- 
cially when  spread  thinly  on  the  dry,  .semi -bare 
knobs  of  the  grass  fields.  While  it  is  not  advisable 
to  attempt  to  conserve  moisture  on  any  large  avei\s 
by  the  u.se  of  these  materials,  yet  full  success  is  onl\ 
secured  by  nuiking  good  use  of  the  small  things  as 
well  as  the  large  ones.  Many  an  unsightly  place  in 
the  lawn  could  l)e  improved  if  a  few  seeds  were 
sown  and  the  sod  covered  lightly  with  fine,  rich 
earth.  Many  a  bare  place  in  the  hilly  pasture  could 
in  like  manner  be  healed,  if  bi-ush  were  used  to 
partially  shade  the  land  and  to  prevent  the  animals 
from  grazing  the  grass  too  closely.  In  all  these 
and  similar  cases,  conserving  the  moisture  may  give 
more  satisfactory  results,  all  things  considered,  than 
expensive    manuring   or    irrigation. 

A  light  mulch  of  fine  manure  on  meadow  laml 
nuiy  not  oidy  conserve  moisture,  hut  also  furnish  ac- 
ceptable plant -food.  It  can  b(*  readily  understood 
that  if  pasture  lands  aiv  not  fully  covered  with 
herbage,  there  will  be  unnecessary  loss  of  moisture 
where  the  l)are  spots  occui",  be  they  ever  so  small. 
Then,     to    secure    the     greatest     benefit     from     stored 


Effeclfi    i>f    Thick    nvd    Thiti   t^ceding.  Ill 

moisture,  the  entire  surface  should  Ix'  shaded  with 
plants.  If  there  are  numerous  small  V)are  spots  in 
the  pasture,  moisture  escapes  without  passing  through 
the  plants.  If  there  are  too  many  plants  present, 
there  may  not  be  enough  moisture  for  the  multi- 
tude; if  so,  the  plants  fail  to  make  a  normal  growth, 
and    are   dwarfed    in    size   and    injured    in    quality. 

f .  The  herbage  on  the  ungrazed  mowing  lands  soon 
becomes  tall  enough  to  shade  the  land,  although  the 
plants  are  or  should  be  less  than  half  as  numerous 
as  on  the  pasture  lauds.  Many  permanent  meadows 
have  too  many  plants  ;  most  i)astures  have  too  few 
plants.  It  may  be  said  that  a  meadow  thickly  seeded 
furnishes  a  larger  per  cent  of  leaves  to  stalk  than 
one  only  moderately  seeded.  On  the  other  hand,  it. 
may  be  said  that  leaves  grown  in  a  dense  shade  arc 
poor  in  quality,  deficient  in  aromatic  oils,  and  are 
less  valuable  than  seed -stalks  and  l)lossoms  grown 
in  the  sunlight.  One  has  but  to  taste  an  apple  from 
off  the  lower  branch  of  a  tree  and  one  from  the 
sunlit  top,  to  fully  appreciate  what  effect  sunshine' 
has  on  the  quality  of  plants  and  their  fruits.  In. 
the  pasture,  no  matter  how  thick  the  plants  may  l)c. 
all  receive,  on  account  of  their  diminutive  size,  suf-" 
ficient  sunshine,  yet  it  is  quite  possible  to  have  so 
many  plants,  even  in  the  pasture,  that  there  may  l>e 
an   undue  struggle  for   moisture  and   existence. 

^-JMnlchiiLg  on  a  large__scale  with  coarse  manure 
and  refuse  material  in  inter -tilled  crops,  as  berries, 
orchard  trees,  and  the  like,  is  jiotJ;o  be  recommended, 
for  it  tends  to  obstruct  tillage,  encourages  the  growth 


112  The   Fertility   of  the   Lund. 

of    weeds,  and   induces   the  plants    to    feed    too   near 

the  surface,   in    which  case  they  suffer   from   drought 

and   severe   freezing  whenever   the   nuilch    is   removed 

••  lijis  d«'«!i\«Ml.     T1m»  cost  of   such  tiinl<*h  is  so   grent. 


H'iK.  "^4.     PhotOKmph  of  a  cross-seolion  of   soil,  ghowiiiK   the  compacted  under 
soil  or  sub-surface,  and   tlie  earth-iiiuloh   on   top. 

iis  compared  with  one  of  earth,  that  it  should  not 
Ik*  adopted  except  on  areas  too  diminutive  for  horse 
tillage. 

Moisture    may    also     he   conserved,     especially     on 


Capillarity    of   ISails. 


113 


light  lands,  by  adding  humus,  or  vegetable  matter 
to  the  soil,  since  it  increases  capillarity  and  the 
moisture -storing  capacity  of   the  land. 

The    most    satisfactory  and     universally  applicable 
method    of    conserviufr   moisture,   however,  is    that    of 


Fig.  'ij.     PhotoKrapli  showing  a  section  of  soil  not  fined  nor  compacted  below. 


a  soft  earth -mulch.  Fig.  24  represents  a  deep  earth- 
mulch  resting  on  soil  well  fined  and  compacted. 
Fig.  25  shows  a  clayey  soil  freshly  plowed,  not  com- 
pacted or  fined  except  at  the  surface.  It  is  evident 
that  in  the  second  case  no  moisture  can  rise  by  cap- 
illarity   from    the    subsoil     towards    the    surface,    and 


114  Tin    Fertility   of  (he    Land. 

it  is  also  evident  that  the  air  may  cinnilat<*  with 
too  much  freedom  through  the  plowed  soil,  and  rob 
it  of  the  moisture  which  it  contained  when  plowed. 
Fig.  25  fitly  represents  the  condition  of  clayey  fields 
which  are  plowed  dry  in  mid -September,  harrowed 
lightly,  sowed  to  wheat  or  rye,  and  rolled.  Were  it 
not  for  the  heavy  rains  during  the  fall,  lands  prepared 
in  this  way  would  give  more  nn'ager  results  than 
they  do.  If  rains  come  early  and  are  abundant,  the 
.capillary  power  of   the  soil  may  be   partially  restored. 

It  is  impossible  to  state  accurately  just  how  com- 
pact the  sub -surface  soil  should  be,  or  how  deep  or 
how  fine  the  surface,  but  some  general  rules  and 
illustrations  may  help  to  guide  the  judgment  when 
deciding  these  difficult  points,  which  become  doubly 
difficult  when  applied  to  various  conditions  and  when 
widely  differing   results   are  desired. 

Light  and  sandy  soils  have  but  feeble  powei-  to 
hold  moisture  and  to  furnish  it  to  the  growing 
plants.  Their  power  to  do  this  work  is  increased  by 
a  most  thorough  solidification  of  the  sub -surface  soil. 
As  a  rule,  these  are  the  soils  which  are  solidified  the 
least  l)y  tillage,  since  they  can  be  made  fine  and 
smooth  and  put  in  an  apparently  good  condition 
with  a  minimum  amount  of  tillage.  The  productive 
power  of  this  class  of  lands  is  increased  quite  as 
much  by  frequent  rollings,  harrowings  and  tramp- 
ings  as  that  of  the  more  tenacious  soils  is.  On  all 
lands  which  do  not  run  together  when  wet,  no  dam- 
age, but  rather  benefit,  may  be  expected  from  fi"e- 
quent    surface    tillage.        Clayey    soils   usually    require 


V 


Danger  of  Soil   Puddling.  115 

extra  surface  tillage  to  bring  them  into  proper  phys- 
ieal  condition,  but  if  the  soil  be  dryish  the  earth- 
mulch  may  become  so  fine,  and  even  dusty,  by  till- 
age as  to  be  seriously  puddled  by  dashing  or  long- 
continued  rains,  in  which  case  the  moisture  will  rise 
to  the  surface  and  be  dissipated  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  Then,  too,  it  is  possible,  by  too  frequent  sur^ 
face  tillage  when  the  soil  is  dry,  to  so  fine  the  earth 
as  to  cause  the  soil  particles  to  be  held  in  sus- 
pension, and  they  would  then  pass  downwards,  and 
so  fill  the  pores  of  the  land  as  to  arrest  capillarity 
and  exclude  air,  in  which  case  the  water  would  pass 
off  over  the  surface  in  wet  weather  and  the  land 
crack  in  dry  weather,  both  of  which  conditions  are 
undesirable  if  moisture  is  to  be  stored  in  the  soil. 
Soils  containing  an  abundance  of  humiis  are  less 
likely  to  be  injuriously  affected  by  the  conditions 
mentioned^  above  than  those  deficient    in    humus  are. 

While  a  deep  earth -mulch  conserves  moisture  bet- 
ter than  a  surface  one,  yet  in  some  cases  the  shallow 
mulch  may  be  most  desirable,  as  in  maize  culture, 
when  the  plants  have  become  large  and  the  roots 
occupy  the  soil  near  the  surface.  A  deeper  mulch 
may  be  maintained  when  the  deeper -rooted  potatoes 
are  grown.  In  warm  climates,  the  roots  of  all  plants 
tend  to  form  at  lower  depths  than  in  cool  climates. 
In  sandy  or  semi -arid  districts,  the  roots  of  plants 
tend  to  avoid  the  upper  strata  of  the  soil.  Some 
plants,  as  bearing  trees,  are  most  fruitful  if  their 
growth  is  somewhat  checked  during  the  latter  part 
of   the   season,  and  hence  the  earth -mulch  should  not 


116  The    FerWitif    of  th<     ImikI. 

be  continued  inttict  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer  and  fall,  or  the  trees  will  have  their  vege- 
tative energies  stimulated  at  the  expense  of  fruitful- 
ness.  The  unfruitfulness  of  some  orchards  is  due 
to  over -stimulation  of  the  vegetative  system  bj-  a 
too  large  supply  of  nitrogen.  Unfruitfulness  may 
also  come  from  a  lack  of  moisture,  and  hence  a  lack 
of  nourishment,  at  critical  i)eriods  in  the  life  of  the 
tree.  It  will  be  seen  how  intelligent  must  be  the 
use  of  the  earth-mulch,  manures,  cover  crops  and  the 
liberation  of  moisture  and  plant -food  by  systematic 
tillage,  if   the    highest   profitable  success  is  reached. 

From  the  first  of  July  in  the  south  to  the  middle 
of  August  in  the  north,  either  crimson  or  red  clover 
may  be  sowed  to  check  too  rapid  growth  of  orchard 
trees.  This  check  tends  to  make  the  trees  de- 
velop strong,  mature  fruit -buds,  able  to  resist  ad- 
verse conditions.  But  under  certain  conditions  the 
nitrogen  furnished  by  the  (dover,  when  plowed  under 
the  following  spring,  may  so  stimulate  the  vegeta- 
tive energies  as  to  diminish  fruitfulness,  and  the 
covering  of  clover  or  plant -mulch,  which  is  so  bene- 
ficial in  most  cases,  may  then  be  injurious.  If  trees 
give  indication  that  this  is  the  case,  a  cover  crop 
of  rye  should  be  substituted  for  the  clover,  or  the 
clover  may  be  closely  pastured  in  the  spring,  before 
it   is   turned   under. 

We  have  seen  the  danger  of  continuing  the 
earth -mulch  too  late  in  the  season  in  fruit -culture, 
but  the  ordinary  inter-tilled  crops,  as  maize,  are 
greatly    benefited    by    preserving    a    mulch    intact    to 


Economizing   Moisture, 


117 


118  The    Fertility   of  the    Ixtud. 

as  late  a  period  as  possible,  since  at  the  end  of  a 
period  at  which  the  inter-tilled  crops  are  "laid  by" 
they  are  so  far  advanced  as  to  preclude  over-stim- 
ulation of  the  vegetative  system.  Since  these  crops 
usually  lack  a  full  supply  of  food,  and  especially  a 
full  supply  of  moisture,  during  the  time  of  matin-- 
ing  fruit,  late,  freciuent,  shallow  tillage  should  be 
continued,  that  the  plants  may  have  a  full  sui)ply 
of  nourishment  and  ample  transportation  facilities  for 
canning  it  to  the  rei)roductive  organs.  Fig.  2G  sliows 
the  effects  of   late  shallow  tillage    \ipon    Indian    corn. 

Most  of  the  potatoes  in  the  general  market  are 
insipid  and  undesirable  largely  because  their  normal 
growth  is  arrested  before  they  are  fully  nuiture.  A 
lack  of  foliage  in  tiie  later  stages  of  development, 
due  sometimes  to  disease,  but  more  connnonly  to  lack 
of  moisture,  results  in  small  yields  of    inferior  tubers. 

All  that  has  been  said  of  conserving  moisture 
by  suitable  and  timely  tillage  holds  e(iually  true 
when  applied  to  crops  not  inter- tilled.  ^luch  may 
be  done  to  so  compact  or  fine  or  loosen  the  sub- 
surface soil  and  prepare  the  surface  soil  as  to  liber- 
ate plant -food,  form  a  reservoir  for  moisture  (not 
for  free  water) ,  while  securing  the  most  desirable 
capillary  action  and  the  conservation  of  moisture. 
To  facilitate  the  saving  of  moisture,  crops  such  as 
grass,  wheat,  oats  and  the  like,  may  be  in  part 
inter- tilled  by  the  use  of  harrows  having  numerous 
short,  small  teeth.  True,  only  a  shallow  mulch 
can  be  secured,  but  this  is  to  be  preferred  to  a 
moisture -wasting   crust. 


Importance  of  Moisture   and    Water.  119 

The  depth  and  character  of  the  earth -mulch 
should  be  governed  by  the  root  habits  of  the  plants, 
by  the  species  grown,  by  the  character  of  the  soil, 
by  the  climate,  and  by  a  clear  conception  of  the 
results  desired.  Moisture  and  water  play  such  im- 
jiortant  parts  in  the  successful  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  plants  and  animals  as  to  compel  the  most 
painstaking  eflfort  to  discover  the  natural  laws  which 
govern  their  actions  and  their  economic  use  in  hus- 
bandry. (This  subject  is  further  discussed  in  Appen- 
dix B.)  / 


CHAPTER  V. 

IRRIGATION   AND    DRAINAGE. 

The  discussion  of  the  nicuns  of  spcuriii^  and 
saving  soil  moisture  naturally  suggests  the  subjects 
of  irrigation  and  drainage.  Whilst  tliese  matters 
are  too  large  for  speeitie  treatment  here  —  and  both 
of  them  are  soon  to  receive  special  elaboration  by 
other  hands  —  a  few  remarks  upon  their  general  rela- 
tions to  farm  -  practice  may  be  useful. 

IRRIGATION. 

If  irrigation  is  carried  on  in  any  large  wa\ ,  the 
initial  problems  to  be  solved  belong  properly  to 
the  civil  engineer.  No  farmer,  be  he  ever  so  well 
trained  in  the  cultivation  of  plants  and  tillage  of  the 
soil,  can  hope  to  have  accurate  knowledge  or  experi- 
ence in  the  construction  of  large  reservoirs,  the 
damming  of  water  courses,  the  digging  of  canals, 
and  the  equitable  distribution  of  water  amoug  those 
who  purchase  it  at  a  given  rate  per  inch,  or 
amongst  the  owners  of  the  irrigating  plant.  Then, 
too,  wherever  water  is  stored  or  taken  out  of  run- 
ning streams,  serious  legal  questions  often  arise  ; 
in   fact,  they    are   sometimes    so    serious   that    special 

(120) 


Recent  Interest  in   Irrigation.  121 

legislation  is  necessary,  not  only  to  guard  the  rights 
of  those  in  the  immediate  district,  but  also  to  guard 
the  rights  of  those  living  in  adjoining  states  who 
would  have  a  moral,  if  not  a  legal,  right  to  the  use 
of  water  which  naturally  flows  through  their  lands. 
It  is  not  the  purpose  at  this  place  to  go  into 
any  detailed  discussion  of  the  subject  of  irrigation, 
but  to  discuss  it  in  a  general  way.  In  the  last 
few  years,  some  interest  in  irrigation  has  been  awak- 
ened in  the  states  lying  east  of  the  arid  or  semi- 
arid  district.  A  few  small  areas  of  land  in  the 
humid  district  have  been  irrigated  with  more  or  less 
satisfactorj-  results,  and  in  a  few  rare  cases  sub- 
irrigation  has  been  practiced  on  experimental  plats. 
In  all  districts  where  the  annual  precipitation  is 
fairly  abundant,  and  is  not  distributed  with  too  great 
irregularity  throughout  the  various  months  of  the 
year,  irrigation  is  not  likely  to  be  practiced,  except 
on  small  areas  devoted  to  crops  which  give  or  should 
give  a  large  income  per  acre.  In  the  areas  spoken 
of,  where  rain  may  come  at  any  time,  irrigation  or 
flooding  of  the  land  at  any  given  time  when  the 
soil  appears  to  need  moisture  may  be  and  usually 
is  just  preceding  a  greater  or  less  precipitation.  If, 
then,  the  land  be  filled  with  water  and  heavy  showers 
immediately  follow,  the  land  will  be  supersaturated, 
and  the  damage  done  by  the  superabundant  water, 
due  to  the  irrigation  and  the  rainfall  combined,  may 
be  far  greater  than  the  loss  or  damage  which  would 
have  been  caused  by  the  too  dry  condition  of  land 
had   no   irrigation   been   practiced. 


122  The    Fertility   of  the    Ixtnd. 

Wherever  irrigation  is  provided  for  outside  of  the 
arid  or  semi-arid  districts,  except  on  porous  or  light 
lands,  full  and  ample  sub -drainage  will  have  to  be 
provided  if  the  highest  results  are  obtained.  The 
cost  of  providing  the  irrigating  plant  and  of  thor- 
oughly sub-draining  the  land  combined,  would  be  so 
great  as  to  preclude  i)r{)fit,  except  under  special  (con- 
ditions and  with  a  few  special  crops.  Then,  too,  a 
large  portion  of  the  district  which  has  a  fairlj'  abun- 
dant rainfall  is  composed  so  largely  of  clay  that 
irrigation  without  the  most  perfect  sub -drainage 
would  result  in  puddling  the  laud,  and  making  it 
difficult  to  secure  good  tillage  when  the  water  of 
irrigation  was  withdrawn.  Yet  there  are  many  dis- 
tricts located  near  the  great  markets  which,  on  ae- 
<',ount  of  the  friable  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  high 
price  of  garden  and  some  other  products,  lend  them- 
selves most  admirably  to  a  modified  system  of  ir- 
rigation. In  many  cases  the  market  demand  of  the 
large  cities  would  justify  sub -irrigation  on  restricted 
areas. 

Wherever  the  practice  of  laying  water  conduits, 
from  three  to  eight  feet  apart  and  about  one  foot 
deep,  for  sub -irrigation  has  been  adopted,  marked 
bent'fieial  results  have  followed.  In  fact,  sub- irriga- 
tion would  seem  to  be  the  ideal  method  of  provid- 
ing moisture  for  plants,  l)ut  the  cost  of  preparing 
and  maintaining  a  sul)- irrigating  system  is  so  great 
that  it  cannot  come  into  general  practice.  As  to 
the  arid  and  semi -arid  districts,  it  may  be  said  that 
in   most  cases    the    texture   and    composition   of    ihv 


Holding   Back    the    Waters.  123 

soil  are  admirably  adapted  to  irrigation,  and  it  is 
largely  only  a  matter  of  ample  water  supply,  and 
its  cheap  transportation  to  and  distribution  in  the 
fields,  which  has  to  be  considered,  for  in  the  dis- 
trict where  the  rainfall  is  extremely  light,  or  where 
there  is  no  rainfall  at  all  for  three  to  six  months 
of  the  year,  irrigation  can  be  scientifically  practiced: 
that  is,  the  plants  can  be  supplied  with  the  requisite 
amount  of  moisture  without  any  danger  of  their  re- 
ceiving a  great  superabundance  of  it  from  unexpected 
rainfall. 

As  has  been  said,  in  all  this  arid -district  the 
problem  must  be  solved  first  by  the  civil  engineer. 
Happily,  we  have  men  who  are  thoroughly  competent 
to  undertake  this  work,  and  who  are  interested  in 
the  beneficial  results  which  might  follow  an  intelli- 
gent system  of  water  storage  for  irrigating  purposes. 
More  than  this,  if  the  water  can  be  held  back  at  its 
sources  until  needed,  floods  will  be  somewhat  miti- 
gated, the  humidity  of  the  climate  increased,  and 
beneficial  results  will  follow  in  many  other  ways. 
It  is  pleasant  to  note  that  the  National  Government 
has  already  provided  means  to  hold  back  the  waters 
at  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  thereby  mitigating 
the  floods  and  making  the  Upper  Mississippi  navi- 
gable  at  nearh'  all    seasons   of  the   year. 

The  following  facts  are  given  to  show  what  vast 
reservoirs  may '  be  constructed  at  small  cost  when 
the  work  is  undertaken  in  an  intelligent  way  by  a 
competent  engineer,  like  Major  W.  A.  Jones.  Five 
dams  have  already  been  constructed  at  a  cost  slightly 


124  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

exceeding  $600,000.*  "In  a  general  way,  the  reser- 
voirs may  be  said  to  be  located  in  the  gre&t  lake 
region  of  the  state  of  Minnesota,  in  the  midst  of 
an  extensive  area  of  wooded  swamp  and  open  mead- 
ows and  marshes.  Their  general  elevation  is  about 
1,290  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  There  are 
thirty  thousand  lakes  in  this  lake  region,  and  the 
state  has  a  water  area  in  its  own  borders  of  many 
thousands    of   square   miles. 

"The  following  tabular  statement,  compiled  from  a 
larger  table  in  the  office  of  the  chief  of  engineers 
at  St.  Paul,  gives  some  interesting  information  as 
to  the  immense  size  of  these  reservoirs,  put  in  con- 
densed  form: 

Workiiic  height  of  dam         Area  of  reservoir,  Area  of 

above  low  water,  sq.  miles,  water-shed, 

in  feet.  high  water.  Low  water.  sq.  miles. 

Winnibigoshish  . . .  14  161. 2(i  117.  l,442.4:i 

Leech  Lake 6  233.80  173.19  1,162.80 

Pokegama  Lake...  9  45.29  24.13  660.2.{ 

Pine  River 17  33.76  8.  562.07 

Sandy  Lake 7  16.52  33.33  421.50 

490.63  355.65  4,249.03'" 

Major  Jones  says:  "There  is  no  operation  in  en- 
gineering so  fraught  with  importance  to  mankind  as 
the  regulation  of  the  flow  of  water  which  results 
from  rainfall.  ******  Given  a  definite 
superficial  area  of  land  from  which  all  surplus  rain- 
fall will  flow  toward  and  into  one  channel,  and  the 
benefits   which    will    result     to    the '  population    along 

•  W.  S.  Harwood,  Harp«r's   Wwkly.  No.  2,090,  p.  38.      (Copyright,  1887,  by 
Harper  &  Brothers.) 


Effects   of  Glimatic    Changes.  125 

that  channel  from  the  control  of  its  water -flow  are 
great  and   far-reaching.     Here  are  some  : 

"1.  Prevention  of  floods,  or  a  reduction  of  their 
intensity. 

"2.  A  sure  supply  of  water  for  navigation  during 
the   low -water   season. 

"3.  A  more  nearlj'  uniform  distribution  of  the 
water   for   power    purposes. 

"4.  Furnishing  water   for   irrigation    purposes. 

"5.  Preventing  deterioration  of  water  used  for  do- 
mestic purposes  during  low -water    periods. 

"A  desert  is  a  place  where  rainfall  is  not  sufficient 
to  support  life.  If  the  earth's  rainfall  were  uni- 
formly distributed  over  its  surfa('e,  there  would  be  no 
desert.  Each  desert  area  is  sun-ounded  by  a  zone 
where  precipitation  is  sufficient  for  grass  and  low 
bushes,  but  not  for  trees  or  agriculture.  This  is 
the  border  land  of  desert.  The  varying  effects  of  cli- 
matic changes  alternately  expand  and  contract  this 
zone.  It  may,  over  an  indefinite  period  of  years, 
contract  and  absorb  the  desert — vide  the  Great  Amer- 
ican Desert — or  it  may  expand  and  extend  its  bor- 
ders far  into  the  region  of  lands  arable  without  irri- 
gation. There  ai-e  many  indications  that  over  the 
great  plains  areas  of  the  northern  hemisphere  this 
process  is  now  going  on.  A  careful  assemblage  of 
facts  will  doubtless  show  that  over  these  great  areas 
and  along  their  wet  borders  the  lakes  and  streams 
have  for  many  years  past  been  gradually  drying  up. 
.\nd,  furthermore,  they  bear  remarkable  evidence  of 
a   time  when    the    precipitation    was   far   less   than    at 


126  The    Fn-filifif    of   the    hind. 

present.  It  is,  tlu'ivfcn'c,  a  inatttT  of  {gravest  iiii|M)i'- 
tance  for  the  people  of  tlie  United  States  to  con- 
serve and  (control  precipitation  over  and  near  tliis 
border  land    of    desert." 

There  are  many  districts  in  the  United  States 
which  niifjht  be  treated  similarly  to  the  one  dc- 
.scribed  above,  with  all  of  the  l)eneticial  resnlts  which 
liave  been  enumerated.  Tlien,  too,  there  are  many 
badly  farmed  areas  which  mi«;ht  better  )>e  covered  with 
wat(;r  than  farmed  at  a  lo.ss.  Not  one  reservoir 
for  water  storajje,  but  thousands,  l)oth  larjje  and 
small,  should  be  constructed.  When  the  science  of 
holdinjj  back  surplus  water  economically  lias  been 
learned  and  i)ut  into  practice,  and  the  benefits  (h'- 
rived  from  such  practice  have  V)een  appreciated,  it 
will  be  an  easy  task  to  awaken  interest  in  forestry. 
Reservoirs  alone  cannot  entirely  arrest  floods,  oi*  fur- 
nish as  humid  an  atmosphere  as  is  desired.  They 
must  be  supplanted  by  larj^e  areas  of  planted  or 
natural  forest  belts.  To  what  better  use  could  many 
of  the  rocky,  steep  hillsides  and  poor  farms,  which 
have  been  made  poorer  by  tilla<je,  Ije  put  than  to 
jfrow  trees  and  to  hold  back  water  during  periods 
of  abundant  precipitation?  If  one -fourth  of  the 
land, — the  poorer  and  rougher  areas, — was  thrown  out 
of  cultivation  and  allowed,  even  by  nature's  slow  pro- 
cesses, to  cover  the  nakedness  of  mother  earth  and 
our  shame,  the  climate  in  tinu^  would  be  changed, 
present  losses,  which  are  now  incurred  by  fai-ming 
these  lands,  avoided,  while  i)ostei-ity  would  reaj)  vast 
anu    enduring    ])enefits    from    our    tiioughtfulness. 


Effects    of    I'nilfrdraliioyf'.  127 

DRAINAGE. 

Underground    drains    serve    to    relieve   the    lan(. 
free   water,   which    is  very   harmful    to   most   plant 
left  to  stagnate  in  the  earth  near  the  surface.      T      . 
serve    not  only    to   dry  the    land   in    early  spring,   1»  (i 
indirecth'    to    warm    it,  for   if   the    water    is     removt'<i 
the   sun's    heat   warms   the   soil,  instead   of  coolin ,'    ' 
by  evaporating   the   surplus    water.      If   much   of    ■ 
free   water   in    the    springtime    is   carried  through 
soil    by    underdrains,    then    the    superabundant    w 
01    midsummer    will,     in    like    manner,    be    remo 
The  rain  in  the  spring  is  warmer  than    the    soil, 
if    it    percolates    through    the    hind    to    the    drains 
parts    with    its    heat    and    indirectly    warms    the 
while  the  rain    in  midsummer  is    cooler  than   the    " 
and  in  passing  down  to  the  drains  cools  the  land. 

Underdrains     prevent    the     interstices    of    the 
from  be(!oming  blocked  or  filled  with  fine   particle 
earth   held  in  suspension  ;   that  is,    they   prevent 
dling,  to   some   extent.      Clayey    soils    shrink    if 
become   dry,    and   swell    when    they  are    wet.     Ui 
drains    tend    to   prevent    the   swelling    and  closin 
the  pores  which  have  been  produced  by  drying, 
soon   as  air  is  admitted  to  the  subsoil,  the  dead 
of   plants  are  decomposed   and    minute  drainage-* 
gels  are  formed.      One  of  the  effects  of  drainage 
produce  many  small   channels  in    the  soil,  which 
vent  the  formation  of  large  cracks  that    admit  tl 
too    freely   and    thereby    cause    excessive    evapon 
Underdrains   promote  fertility   by  oiiening  up  the   soil 


128  The   Fertility   of  the   lAtnd. 

to  the  oxidizing  action  of  the  air,  and  by  making  the 
soil  more  comfortable  for  the  nitrifying  organisms. 

The  rainfall  usually  contains  ammonia  equal  to 
six  to  eight  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre.  The  mor(* 
of  the  water  that  comes  to  the  land  in  rains  and 
snows  that  can  l)e  made  to  pass  through  the  land  in 
a  reasonable  time  the  better,  for  in  passing  through, 
the  ammonia  is  taken  up  by  the  soil,  the  land  be- 
comes better  aerated  and  more  friable,  decomposition 
of  organic  matter  is  hastened,  plant-food  of  all  kinds 
is  liberated,  and  the  productive  power  of  the  land 
is  increased  in  many  other  ways.  Well -constructed 
underdrains  assist  in  mitigating  floods,  increase  the 
fertility,  of  the  soil,  cheapen  tillage,  and  prevent  or 
mitigate  some  of  the  diseases  of  plants  and  the 
ravages   of    some   noxious    insects. 

It  is  evident  that  if  the  soil  is  broken  into 
m'/ute  particles  by  the  action  of  underground  drains, 
its  power  to  hold  moistui-e  will  be  increased.  If  a 
drained  soil  is  capable  of  holding  30  per  cent  of 
moisture  without  giving  off  free  water,  it  will  hold 
back  during  wet  weather  vast  quantities  of  water 
which  would  pass  off  of  undrained  land,  that  could 
hold  but  15  per  cent  of  moisture.  Fields  thor- 
oughly underdrained  suffer  far  less  from  droughts 
than  undrained  fields,  other  things  being  equal.  Sur- 
face drainage,  especially  of  marshes  and  other  wet 
lands,  and  the  destruction  of  forests  by  fire  and 
axe,  increase  floods  to  an  alarming  extent,  as  they 
destroy  the  natural  reservoirs  and  absorbing  materials 
of    the    laud. 


Proper  and   Improper    Drainage. 


129 


Fig.  27.      The  proper  method   of    draining    a 
large   field. 


water  into  the  open, 
an  elaborate  system 
of  mains  and  later- 
als. Fig.  27  repre- 
sents a  square  of 
forty  acres  drained 
by  the  parallel  sys- 
tem, and  Fig.  28  a 
like  amount  drained 
by  the  too  common 
method.  If  the 
ditches  are  placed 
thirty  feet  apart  in 
Fig.  27,  it  would 
take  58,080  feet  of 
tile     to     drain      the 


It  is  not  the  pur- 
pose to  enter  into  the 
details  of  sub -drain- 
age, but  the  mistake 
of  concentrating 
water  into  mains  and 
sub-mains  when  they 
might  be  avoided  is 
so  often  made,  that 
it  seems  fitting  to 
discuss  one  phase  of 
the  subject  briefly. 
It  is  the  better  plan 
to  let  each  drain 
discharge  its  own 
than    to    complicate    matters    b3' 


Fig.   28     The   common   but  improper    method 
of  draining  a   large  field. 


130  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

land.  It  would  take  the  same  number  of  tile  to  drain 
the  land  in  Fig.  28,  plus  2,640  feet  for  the  mains 
and  sub-mains.  These  would  have  to  be  larger  than 
the  tile  used  in  the  laterals,  and  should  be  placed 
three  or  four  inches  deeper,  that  the  water  of  the 
laterals  may  enter  near  the  top  of  the  mains  with 
a  rapid  fall.  Many  connections  would  have  to  be 
made,  and  nothing  would  be  gained  except  that  fewer 
outlets  would  have  to  be  cared  for  by  the  second 
than  by  the  first  system.  The  mains  and  sub- 
mains  are  really  not  drains,  but  are  expensive  con- 
duits for  carrying  off  the  water  which  is  brought  to 
the  lowest  land  by  the  laterals. 


CHAPTER     VI. 

FARM    MANURES. 

Formerly  all  substances  which  were  spread  upon 
the  land  for  the  purpose  primarily  of  enriching  it, 
were  designated  as  manures.  Latterly  the  meaning 
of  the  word  has  changed  somewhat,  and  it  does 
not  now  embrace  commercial  fertilizers,  nor  those 
substances  whose  chief  object  is  to  improve  the  phys- 
sical  condition  of  the  soil.  The  term  is  now  applied 
to  the  excrements  of  domestic  animals,  mixed  or 
unmixed  with  vegetable  or  other  refuse  material,  and 
a  few  other  substances  ;  only  in  rare  cases  are  amend- 
ments, or  extraneous  matters,  or  fertilizers  mixed 
with  them  in  sufficient  quantities  to  change  in  any 
marked  way  the  character  of  their  constituents.  The 
term  excrements  has  been  substituted  for  the  ancient 
word  dung,  the  meaning  of  which  was  somewhat 
ambiguous.  Excrements  are  the  solid  and  liquid  void- 
ings  of  animals,  unmixed  with  litter.  The  term  barn 
manures  has  been  substituted  in  some  cases  for  farm- 
f/ard  manures,  the  object  being  to  sharply  distinguish 
those  which  are  cared  for  and  sheltered  until  they 
are  taken  to  the  field,  from  those  which  are  left  to 
depreciate  in  quantity  and  value  by  being  exposed 
in   the  farmyard   to   the  action  of   the  rain  and   heat. 

(131) 


132  The    FerWifjf    of  the    Land. 

Ftirni  tiKinurfs  is  a  tfeneric  term,  and  includes  all 
kinds  and  classes  of  refuse  matter,  whether  applied 
chiefly  as  an  amendment,  or  for  the  plant -fo()d  con- 
tained, or  for  forming?  a  mulch,  or  for  all  three  pur- 
poses combined.  The  excrements  associated  witli  bed- 
ding or  other  material  from  different  species  of 
animals  when  thrown  topfether  are  called  niij-id  mo- 
tno'fs,  while  those  from  a  single  species  are  designa- 
ted by  the  name  of  the  kind  of  animals  which  pro- 
duced them. 

GENERAL     CON'SIDERATIOXS      RESPErTIN(i     THE     USE 
OF      -MANURES. 

Most  manures  are  unbalanced :  that  is,  they  con- 
tain a  relatively  high  percentage  of  potential  nitro- 
gen and  a  low  pen'cntage  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  provided  the  comparison  is  made  with  the 
composition  of  plants  grown  under  connnon  condi- 
tions, where  mixed  agriculture  is  largely  pursued. 
If  the  comparison  is  made  with  the  composition  of 
plants  alone,  then  farm  manures  nuiy  be  said  to  be 
relatively  low  in  potential  nitrogen  and  high  in  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  ;  ])ut  this  method  of  compar- 
ison is  very  misleading,  for  while  the  soil  is  being 
constantly  enriched  in  nitrogen  from  leguminous 
plants  which  have  immediately  preceded,  from  those 
plants  which  grow  with  the  crop  with  which  the 
manures  are  compared,  from  potential  nitrogen  which 
is  being  constantly  absorbed  by  moist,  friable  soils, 
and    from    that  which  is   brought    to  the  soil    by  rain. 


Soil,   Climate   and   Food.  133 

the  mineral  matter  is  not  being  augmented  fr(»ni  out 
side  sources.  It  is  believed  that  in  the  greater  i)art 
of  the  arable  portion  of  the  Unit(Ml  States  east  of 
the  dry  belt,  enough  nitrogen  from  the  last  two 
sources  alone  is  secured  to  supply  one -third  of  the 
wants  of  the  cultivated  plants.  True,  the  average; 
yield  of  farm  crops  is  only  one -third  of  what  it 
might  be  if  superior  tillage  and  underdraining  were 
the  rule  instead  of  the  exception,  and  if  the  effort 
were  abandoned  of  trying  to  raise  plants  on  land 
and  in  a  climate  not  well  adapted  to  their  growth 
and   highest   development. 

If  plants  are  not  well  adapted  to  the  soil  and 
climate,  they  are  unable  to  utilize  the  food  which  is 
present,  and  tend  to  languish,  although  there  may 
be  not  only  a  sufficient  plant  ration,  but  also  a  well- 
balanced  one.  Consequently,  in  basing  the  wants  of 
plants  on  chemical  analyses,  and  in  making  compar- 
isons between  them  and  the  composition  of  manures, 
there  is  danger  of  being  led  into  erroneous  conclu- 
sions. The  whole  subject  is  difficult  and  extremely 
complex,  as  plants  differ  so  widely  in  the  power  of 
their  roots  to  make  soluble  the  matei-ial  in  the  soil, 
and  also  in  their  power  to  tolerate  an  excess  of  ono 
or  more  of  the  elements  of  growth,  or  even  of  sub- 
stances not  necessary  to  the  plant.  It  is  next  to  im- 
possible to  determine  by  analysis  of  soil  and  plant 
how  much  and  what  plant -food  should  be  added  to 
secure  best  results.  Then,  too,  plants  raised  for  a 
long  time  under  superior  conditions  of  plant -food, 
soil  and   climate,  acquire  powers  not    possessed  by  the 


134  The    Fertiliiii    of  the    Land. 

same  species  grown  from  time  to  time  under  adverse 
<*onditions.  Not  only  may  plants,  like  animals,  ac- 
quire new  qualities  and  increase  those  already  pos- 
sessed, but  they  may  also,  in  time,  under  favorable 
conditions,  become  so  fixed  in  their  acquired  powers 
that  these  characters  may  be  transmitted  with  a  good 
degree  of  certainty ;  that  is,  they  become  thorough- 
])red,  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word. 

Plants  vary  greatly  in  their  root  systems  and  leaf 
structure,  and  hence  in  their  power  to  secure  the 
necessary  elements  from  the  soil  and  from  the  atmos- 
phere. Some  thrive  best  with  a  minimum,  othei*s 
with  a  maximum  amouift  of  moisture  ;  some  do  best 
on  poor  soils,  and  others  will  thrive  only  when  there 
is  an  abundance  of  easily  available  food.  To  feed 
plants  understandingly  is  not  only  extremely  difficult, 
but  sometimes  impossi))le ;  therefoi-e.  a  most  careful 
study  of  the  wants  of  plants  from  the  scientific  and 
chemical  standpoint  may  not  give  the  information 
desired,  unless  made  in  connection  with  close  obser- 
vations of  the  behavior  of  the  plant  throughout  its 
entire  period  of  germination,  growth  and  fructifica- 
tion. Notwithstanding  all  this,  if  the  investigatoi- 
begins  to  question  the  soil  with  a  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  the  crops  to  be  raised  and  the  ma- 
nures applied,  he  is  far  more  likely  to  obtain  true 
answers  to  his  questions  thati  if  he  were  to  trust 
entirely  to  science  on  the  one  hand,  or  to  visible, 
external   results  on  the  other.* 

•  For  a  sketch  of  the  methods  which  tho  t'Hriner  may  pursue  to  determine 
wh»t  plftntfoods  he  m»y  use  to  best  nilvantaKr.  see  Caldwell.  Bull.  129.  (.'orr.ell 
£zp.  StH. 


Bright    Straw   Necessary.  13.') 

To  show  more  clearly  the  need  of  care  in  draw- 
ing  conclusions,    the    following   examples   are    given  : 

Wheat,  with  its  accompanying  straw  and  chaff, 
uses,  approximately,  for  every  100  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
83  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  63  pounds  of  pot- 
ash. Unleached  horse  manure,  if  applied  in  sufficient 
quantities  (supposing  that  all  the  plant -food  it  con- 
tains is  available)  to  furnish  100  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
would,  at  the  same  time,  furnish  58  pounds  of  phos- 
})horic  acid  and  139  pounds  of  potash  ;  or  an  excess 
above  the  requirements  of  the  plant  of  25  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  76  pounds  of  potash.  When 
the  problem  is  reduced  to  practice,  it  is  found  that 
notwithstanding  there  seems  to  be  an  excess  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  as  compared  with  nitrogen, 
the  wheat  may  still  be  unalile  to  form  straw  firm 
enough  to  resist  rust  or  stiff  enough  to  carry  it 
safely  to  the  harvest  period.  Or  in  other  words,  while 
the  comparison  from  the  chemical  standpoint  shows 
that  there  is  an  excess  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
in  the  horse  manure,  as  compared  with  the  compo- 
sition of.  wheat,  the  plant  shows  b}'  its  soft  texture, 
tendency  to  rust  and  inability  to  stand  up  and  fruit 
bountifully,  that  it  is  gorged  with  nitrogen.  This 
would  seem  to  show  that  ordinary  soils  under  rota- 
tion receive  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  from  sources 
outside  of  the  manures,  often  quite  as  large  as  plants 
which  are  sensitive  to  nitrogen  (as  oats,  for  example) 
can  use,  and  still  remain  strong  and  healthy. 

If  the  average  composition  of  manure,  as  found 
in     a     hirgt'    number     of     experiments     made     at     tin- 


136  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

Cornell  University  Station  with  125  animals  (cows, 
calves,  pigs,  horses  and  sheep),  is  compared  witli 
the  composition  of  Indian  corn,  allowing  that  the 
stalk  is  to  the  grain  as  three  to  one,  and  with  some 
other  leading  crops,  the  following  results  are  reached: 

Phos.  acid.  Potash. 

Mixed  manure  contains,  for  every  100 

lbs.  nitrogen 49.6  lbs.  77.8  lbs. 

Maize    {whole    plant)     contains,     for 

every  100  lbs.  nitrogen 22.         '  100. 

Oats,  \%   straw    to    1  grain,  contain, 

for  every  100  lbs  nitrogen. 37.3     •'  82.0    •• 

Barley,  IJ^  .straw  to  1  grain,  contains, 

for  every  100  ll)s.  nitrogen 31. .5      •  08.7      • 

Mangolds,  14  tops  to  1  roots,  contain, 

for  every  100  ll>s.  nitrogen ATt.  180. 

Potatoes,  ]/i  tops  to  1  tubers,  contain, 

for  every  100  lbs.  nitrogen 27.        "  110. 


The  above  shows  that  for  every  100  pounds  of 
nitrogen  which  the  manure  furnishes,  there  is  an 
excess  of  17. G  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  a  de- 
ficieiK'y  of  22.2  pounds  of  potash,  when  compared 
with  the  composition  of  maize.  All  of  the  plants 
mentioned  require  a  loss  proportion  of  phosphoric 
acid  than  would  be  furnisliod  l)y  the  manure,  and 
without  any  exception  they  all  require  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  potash,  as  compared  with  the  nitrogen, 
than  the  manure  would  supply. 

Most  good  farms  are  kept  in  a  productive  condi- 
tion by  the  aid  of  rotation  and  manures,  with  an 
occasional  light  application  of  commercial  fertilizers 
to  tlie  cereals.  The  table  above  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate  that   both    nitrogen   jnid    j>otash  should  be  applied 


Availability   of  Plant- food.  137 

in  excess  of  the  phosphoric  acid  ;  yet,  iti  practice, 
fertilizers  containing  a  relatively  high  percentage  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  a  low  percentage  of  nitrogen,  as 
compared  with  the  composition  of  the  cereals,  are 
almost  invariably  used.  In  fact,  in  many  cases,  as 
in  the  growing  of  barley  and  wheat,  the  best  finan- 
cial results  are  often  reached  by  the  application  of 
l)hosphoric  acid  alone.  No  facts  are  at  hand  to  show 
whether,  in  manures,  a  greater  percentage  of  one  of 
these  elements  over  the  other  two  is  available.  We 
know  only  that  a  part  of  the  nitrogen  furnished  by 
the  manure  may  escape  by  leaching,  but  it  is  very 
possible  that,  on  account  of  chemical  changes  or 
l)ad  tillage,  the  phosphoric  acid  which  the  manure  con- 
tains is  not  as  available  as  the  potash  or  the  nitrogen. 
It  is  certain  that  when  land  is  treated  to  superior 
surface  tillage,  especially  during  the  warmer  months, 
large  amounts  of  nitrogen  are  set  free, — so  large,  in 
fact,  tliat  in  some  cases  the  plants  are  injured  by 
the  excess.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  much 
of  the  potential  nitrogen  in  the  soil  is  always  in  such 
forms,  under  ordinary  tillage,  as  to  be  useless  to  the 
plant,  and  that  extra  tillage  maj'  give  more  econom- 
ical results  than  the  application  of  nitrogenous  fertil- 
izers  would. 

All  of  the  discussion  so  far  is  applicable  to  most 
of  those  localities  where  grasses,  clover  and  the 
cereals  are  raised  in  shorter  or  longer  rotation,  but 
as  soon  as  the  dry  districts,  or  a  warm  climate  and 
more  sandy  soil  are  reached,  the  conditions  are  so 
changed    that    radically     different    practices    of    tillage 


138  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

and  manuring  should  be  followed.  In  the  cotton 
belt,  which  extends  ov«>r  a  wide  ar<'a  and  <'inbraces  a 
variety  of  soils,  climates  and  elevations,  no  methods 
of  manurintj  can  be  nniforndy  reconnnended.  On 
the  lighter  lands  kept  constantly  under  the  plow, 
nitrogen  is  lamentably  deficient.  Farm  manures  in 
that  section  are  never  to  be  had  in  large  (juantities, 
and  are  often  entirely  wanting.  A  dressing  of  cot- 
ton-seed meal,  which  contains  Ix'tween  .">  and  7  pci- 
cent  of  nitrogen,  usually  produces  good  results.  In 
all  the  southern  country  a  much  larger  use  should 
be  made  of  cover  crops  and  leguminous  plants,  such 
as  the  cow  pea,  for  a  four-fold  benefit  to  the  soil 
would  be  secured, — added  humus,  an  increase  in  nitrog- 
enous compounds,  liberation  of  mineral  matter 
through  the  action  of  plant  roots,  and  the  bringing 
from  the  subsoil  to  the  surface  soil  of  i)lant-food 
which  is  now  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  some 
of    the  ordinary  crops,  such   as   the  cereals. 

On  the  fertile  prairies  west  of  the  DOth  nu'ridiaii. 
the  problem  is  not  one  of  i)lant-food,  but  how  to 
furnish  moisture,  and.  consequently,  a  discussion  of 
fertility  as  ap])lied  to  one-third  of  tlie  United  States 
is  sui)erfluous  until  some  means  has  been  found  for 
securing  and  utilizing  the  vast  stores  of  plant- 
foods  already  in  the  soil,  most  of  which  are  made 
easily  available  whenever  and  wherever  the  plants  are 
sui)plied  with  moisture, — that  universal  vehicle  for 
carrying  animal  and  vegetalile  nutrition  both  into 
and    out  of  circulation. 

From    what    has    been    said    it    will    be    jjossible    to 


Conclusions.  139 

draw  some  general  conclusions  respecting  the  manur- 
ing  of   the    land  : 

(1)  That  while  farm  manures  are  almost  always 
valuable  in  improving  the  physical  condition  of  the 
land  and  augmenting  its  power  to  hold  moisture, 
and  in  helping  in  various  waj's  to  make  available  the 
dormant  energy  already  in  the  soil,  yet  they  con- 
tribute only  one  factor — sometimes  a  very  small  one 
— in  determining  the  quality,  quantity  and  value  of 
a  crop.  Their  true  value  depends  not  only  on  the 
composition  but  quite  as  much  on  the  ability  of 
the  husbandman  to  associate  other  factors  with  them, 
which,   taken   together,   lead  to   the  highest  success. 

(2)  That  while  most  soils  contain  a  surplus  of 
plant -food  over  and  above  the  wants  of  the  crop 
in  any  one  season,  yet  the  question  of  highest 
economic  results  as  between  tillage  and  added  plant- 
food    can    be    determined    only    by    experiment. 

(3)  That  increased  tillage,  and  the  application  of 
farm  manm-es  and  other  forms  of  plant -food,  may 
largely  fail  of  their  object  if  the  plants  grown  are 
not  suitable  to  the  climate,  or  have  not  the  inbred 
power  to  make  the  best  use  of  their  improved  en- 
vironment. 

(4)  That  the  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
the  plant  sometimes  gives  no  indication  of  what 
plant -food  should  be  added  to  the  land  to  secure 
the  most  satisfactory  results ;  for  example,  clover 
contains  a  high  percentage  of  potential  nitrogen, 
yet    thrives    well    on    land    deficient    in    it. 

(5)  That    an    ordinary  analysis  of    soil    gives    little 


140  The    Fertility   of  the    Land.  ^ 

indication     as    to    the    availability    of     the    elements 
which    it    contains. 

(6)  That  having  mastered  the  sciences  which  nn- 
derlie  agriculture,  and  having  learned  how  to  apply 
them  to  the  growth  of  one  or  more  kinds  of  plants 
in  any  particular  locality,  and  how  l^est  to  mak<' 
soil  fertility  available,  and  how  to  select  plants  and 
apply  fertilizers  and  manures,  still  all  this  knowl- 
edge may  be  of  little  economic  value  if  the  one 
great   factor   of   moisture    is    lost   sight    of. 

(7)  That  it  is  far  easier  to  start  with  only  a 
few  known  facts,  even  without  a  knowledge  of  how 
best  to  use  them,  in  the  endeavor  to  determine  the 
best  practice,  than  to  ignore  these  fundamental  facts 
and  to  endeavor  to  di.scover  everything  by  experi- 
ment. 

(8)  That  in  no  case  should  the  fact  that  many 
soils  contaiTi  vast  stores  of  plant -food  lead  to  waste 
or  carelessness  in  the  nuinagement  of  the  manurial 
products  of  the  farm,  for,  except  on  lands  which  are 
recuperated  by  overflow  or  irrigation,  natural  or  arti- 
ficial, the  time  is  never  far  distant  when  even  the 
i-ichcst  land  will  fail  to  give  juaximum  results,  if 
unassisted. 

(9)  That  all  home  resources  of  fertility  should 
be  fully  utilized  befoi-e  resort  is  had  to  purchased 
plant -food. 

(10)  That  timeliness,  adaptation,  thoroughness, 
economy  in  the  use  of  energy,  and  good  judgment 
in  the  management  of  details — that  is,  farm-prac- 
ti'c — play    such    important    parts    in    modern    agricui- 


Mature    vs.    Yomuj    AninuiU.  141 

ture  that  they  may  be  considered  to  l)e  efjual,  if 
not  superior,  to  the  facts  revealed  by  chemistry, 
botany,  and  allied  sciences.  Knowledge  and  the  aj)- 
plication  of  it  should  not  be  divorced,  but  joined 
so  firmly  by  intelligent  thought  and  action  that  the 
twain  become  one. 


FACTORS     WHICH     DETERMINE    THE    Ql'ALITY     OF 
FARM     MANURES. 

Manures  vary  greatly  in  their  chemical  composi- 
tion and  also  in  their  beneficial  effects.  These  varia- 
tions are  due  to  many  causes. 

Young  animals  digest  their  food  more  closely  than 
old  ones  do.  Very  young  mannnals  are  usually  fed  on 
milk,  all  of  which  is  believed  to  be  digestible, 
while  the  constituents  of  the  food  of  mature  animals 
are  never  wholly  digested  or  assimilated.  Then.  too. 
in  the  young,  growing  animal,  all  of  the  constituents 
of  its  food  are  wanted  for  growth  and  development, 
while  the  mature  one  has  its  structure  fully  com- 
pleted, and  requires  food  only  for  maintenance  and 
for  surplus  product,  as  increase  in  weight  or  ])rodu(- 
tion  of  milk.  As  the  digestive  and  assimilative 
l)owers  are  more  active  in  young  than  in  old  ani- 
mals, the  excrements  of  the  former  contain  less  of  thf 
manurial  elements  found  in  the  food  consumed  than 
those  of  the  latter.  Young  animals  change  vegetable 
into  animal  products  more  economically  than  old 
ones,  and  hence  they  are  likely  to  give  more  pounds 
increase    in    weight    for    a    sriven    number    of  units    of 


142  Thf     Fn'filihf  of   fin-    hnid. 

food.  l)ut  the  resulting  excrements  are  less  valuable 
than  those  from  mature  animals  are. 

Species  of  animals  vary  as  plants  do  in  their 
power  to  live  on  coarse,  unconcentrate<l  or  tough 
food,  and  it  is  believed  that  they  vary  in  their  powers 
of  digestion  and  assimilation,  though  no  extended  and 
exact  experiments  have  l)een  made  in  this  direction. 
The  question  is  frequently  asked,  if  sheep  make  a 
better  use  of  their  food  than  cattle  or  horses;  that  is, 
if  a  ton  of  hay  and  a  ton  of  corn  be  fed  to  sheep, 
and  the  same  amounts  to  cattle  and  horses,  all  mature 
and  un(V'r  conditions  as  nearly  similar  as  possible, 
which  species  will  assimilate  the  greatest  percentage 
of  its  food,  and  which  will  give  the  greatest  nianurial 
value  in  its  excrements  ?  The  hay  and  maize  being 
the  same  in  quantity  and  ({uality.  in  eitlier  case 
the  amount  of  fertilizing  elements  in  the  solid  excre- 
ments would  determine  the  relative  powers  of  the 
species  to  assimilate  food. 

The  uses  to  which  animals  are  put  frequently 
modify  in  a  marked  degree  the  value  of  their  excre- 
ments. Those  which  reproduce  and  rear  young  make 
poorer  excrements  than  do  those  of  like  species  under 
similar  conditions  which  are  not  bearing  young.  Ani- 
mals giving  milk  produce  poorer  excrements  than 
those  which  are  not  in  milk,  when  placed  under 
like  conditions.  In  other  words,  animals  which  are 
put  to  laborious  woi-k  foi-  many  hours  per  day  re- 
(|uire  a  wide  (or  carbonaceous)  ration,  if  they  are  to 
l»e  well  sustained  in  energy,  and  prevented  from  using 
expensive    nitrot^enous    compounds    in    its    production  ; 


Nitrogenous    Compounds    Expensive.  143 

while  auimals  kept  for  speed,  and  those  which  are 
required  to  do  very  severe  work  for  only  short 
periods,  are  most  satisfactorily  sustained  on  a  narrower 
(or  nitrogenous)   ration. 

Mature  animals  which  are  non-productive  and  are 
not  increasing  in  weight  return  sooner  or  later 
nearly  all  of  the  nianurial  constituents  of  their  food  in 
their  ex(;rements  (manifestly  all  cannot  be  returned, 
as  dead  particles  of  skin  and  hair  are  thrown  off) , 
while  only  one -half  to  two -thirds  is  returned  by 
young  and  rapidly  growing  ones.  Cows  in  full  milk 
return  in  their  excrements  only  about  65  tc  75  per 
cent,  while  fattening  animals  return  85  to  90  per 
cent  of  the  fertilizing  elements  of  their  food. 

The  unscientific  reader  may  not  fully  understand 
how  animals  can  live,  increase  in  weight  and  grow 
fat,  and  yet  return  to  the  manure  pile  nearly  all  of 
the  valuable  fertilizing  constituents  which  their  food 
contained.  Given  a  suitable  ration,  the  animal  first 
of  all  uses  the  carbonaceous  or  heat -producing  ma- 
terials for  maintaining  normal  temperature,  and  if  not 
enough  is  available  it  uses  nitrogenous  compounds, 
and  lacking  in  this,  it  draws  on  the  stored  fat  in 
the  system.  Substituting  the  fats  of  the  animal,  or 
nitrogenous  compounds,  for  the  less  expensive  car- 
bonaceous heat -producers  of  cattle  foods,  is  usually 
poor  economy.  After  the  animal  heat  is  supplied, 
the  balance  of  carbonaceous  matter  may  be  trans- 
formed into  energy  required  for  the  activities  of 
life  and  work.  The  surplus  may  be  transformed 
into  produ(!ts  of  commercial  value.     The   proteids  may 


144  Tlu     FrrtilUfi    nf   fl„     hand. 

also  {five  (•onimercial  products,  or  be  stored  in  the  sys- 
tem, and  finally  i)ass  off  in  excrement. 

While  vegetable  carbonaceous  matter  is  decompos- 
ing or  slowly  oxidizing,  it  may  improve  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil,  and  act  beneficially  in  other 
ways.  About  one -half  of  the  dry  weight  of  plants 
is  carbon.  Carbonaceous  matter  may  be  used  to  im- 
prove the  soil,  but  plants  grow  in  earth  in  which  it 
is  entirely  wanting.  Therefore,  the  carbonaceous 
matter  in  foods  may  be  used  by  the  animal  for  the 
production  of  heat  and  energy,  or  transformed  into 
salable  carbonaceous  products,  without  reducing  the 
fertilizing  value  of  the  excrements.  The  albuminoids, 
or  proteids,  /.  e.,  potential  nitrogen,  are  used  by  the 
animal  for  building  and  nourisiiing  the  flesh,  tendons 
and  the  like,  and  when  they  have  been  in  the  sys- 
tem for  a  time  and  have  become  old,  they  are  thrown 
off,  chiefly  through  the  urinary  organs,  in  somewhat 
changed  forms,  and  are  replaced  by  fresh  albumin- 
oids taken  from  the  food  ;  so  tliat  if  the  animals 
are  not  gaining  in  weight  or  not  making  a  sur- 
plus product,  they  not  only  return  in  their  voidings 
nearly  all  of  the  nitrogenous  comj)ounds,  but  also 
the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  which  their  rations 
contained.  It  will  be  seen  what  a  prominent  part 
domestic  animals  may  be  made  to  play  in  maintain- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  land. 

Heat   and    muscular    power   are  forms   of    force  or 
energy.      The  energy  is  developed  as  the  food   is  con 
suined    in  the  body.     The  unit  commonly  used  in  this 
measun'uicnf    is  the  calorv.  tin*  amount  of    heat  which 


Very    Narrow    Rations    Undesirable.  145 

would  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water 
4°  F.  The  following  general  estimate  has  been  made 
for  the  average  amount  of  potential  energy  in  one 
pound  of  each  of   the  classes  of  nutriments:* 

Calories. 

In  1  pound  of  protein  1 ,860 

In  1  pound  of  fats 4,220 

In  1  pound  of  oartxihydrates 1,860 

It  is  estimated  that  one  unit  of  digestible  fat  is 
equal  to  a  little  over  two  units  of  albuminoids  (pro- 
teids)  for  the  production  of  heat.  A  narrow  ration  is 
usually  more  expensive  than  a  wide  one,  as  digestible 
proteids  cost  twice  per  unit  more  than  carbohydrates, 
while  the  former  does  not  produce  heat  as  satisfac- 
torily as   the    latter. 

In  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  cattle  foods 
containing  an  unusually  high  percentage  of  albumi- 
noids are  frequently  used  in  excess,  because  of  their 
low  price  and  the  high  value  of  the  excrements  of  the 
animals  which  consume  them.  An  extremely  narrow 
ration  may  sometimes  be  economical,  but  it  is  always 
dangerous,  as  it  tends  to  overload  the  kidneys  and 
disturb    the    normal    action    of   the    urinary  organs. 

The  kinds  of  food  consumed  modify  the  composi- 
tion and  value  of  the  resulting  excrements.  If  a 
ration  containing  a  sufficient  supply  of  carbohydrates 
("  heat  -  producers  " )  and  a  superabundance  of  proteids 
("flesh -producers")  is  fed,  the  excrements  will  be 
more  valuable  and   contain  a   larger   relative    percent- 

*  Yearbook  of   the  Department  of    A.irriculture,  1894,   p.  547.       Appendix  by 
W.  O.  Atwater. 

K 


146  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

age  of  potential  nitrogen  than  they  would  if  the 
ration  contained  only  a  sufficiency  of  flesh -formers 
and  a  superabundance  of  heat -producers.  Animals 
which  are  giving  milk  produce  poorer  excrements 
when  fed  easily  digested  rations  than  when  fed  those 
which  are  less  digestible.  Animals  liberally  fed  pro- 
duce richer  excrements  than  those  whi(!h  are  underfed. 

The  individuality  of  the  aniiiuil  may  modify  the 
character  of  the  excrements  in  a  marked  degree,  as 
some  animals  possess  greater  powers  to  transform 
their  food  into  surplus  products  than  others.  The 
greater  this  power,  the  more  valuable  the  animal 
and   the   less    valuable   the   excrement. 

The  amount  of  water  consumed  also  modifies  the 
value  of  the  manure  per  ton.  liations  which  con- 
tain a  relatively  high  percentage  of  albuminoids  call 
for  larger  consumption  of  watei-  than  wide  or  car- 
bonaceous ones  do.  Hence  a  liberal  supj)ly  of  albu- 
minoids tends  to  make  the  solid  excrements  watery, 
and  while  an  excessive  consumption  of  water  may 
increase  the  total  weight  of  excrements,  it  diminishes 
the  percentage  of   their  valuable  constituents. 

The  quantity  of  bedding  used  affects  the  quality 
of  the  manures.  If  the  bedding  is  poorer  than  the 
excrement,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  more  bedding 
used  the  lower  will  be  the  percentage  of  manurial 
value.  The  bedding  may  not  only  promote  the  com- 
fort of  the  animal,  but  it  may  also  conserve  excre- 
ments, and  therefore  manures  containing  a  moderate 
amount  of  straw  or  other  absorbents  may  be  as  rich 
in    the    end    as    those    containing    a    small   amount    or 


Deleterious    Manures.  147 

none,  for  in  the  latter  case  the  excrements  iiiay  lose 
some  of  their  valuable  constituents  for  want  of  l)eini? 
mixed    with    absorbents. 

Manure  is  also  affected  by  the  kind  of  bedding 
used.  Pine  straw  is  believed  to  seriously  injure  it, 
while  pine  shavings  and  sawdust,  when  used  in 
moderate  quantities  and  applied  in  the  right  way, 
are  believed  not  to  be  injurious;  but  if  used  libei'- 
alh',  and  the  manuiv  is  placed  on  light  soils  in 
large  quantities  and  plowed  under,  serious  damage 
may  be  produced  during  droughts.  No  careful  and 
long -continued  experiments  have  yet  been  made  to 
determine  the  extent  or  the  real  cause  of  this  injury, 
but  observation  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  ex- 
crements of  animals  mixed  with  shavings  are  not  so 
available  to  plants  as  when  mixed  with  straw.  It 
would  naturally  ))e  infei-red  that  the  turpentine  and 
other  antiseptic  compounds  found  in  some  kinds  of 
sawdust  and  shavings,  and  especially  in  pine  straw, 
would  seriously  arrest  decomposition,  which  action  may 
be  undesirable.  Decomposition,  if  kept  within  proper 
limits,  is  desirable,  for  the  more  thoroughly  the 
organic  material  of  manures  is  broken  down  the  more 
available  their  constituents  become.  Manures  contain- 
ing large  amounts  of  sawdust  and  shavings,  if 
kept  moist,  and  prevented  from  heating  until  they 
are  thoroughly  broken  down,  lose  all  of  their  dele- 
terious characteristics.  Manures  containing  liberal 
quantities  of  dry  1)edding  (which  decomposes  slowly) 
serve  their  best  purpose  when  spread  evenly  over 
grass  lands  in  the  fall.     Thus  distributed,  they  act  as 


14H  The    Fertility    of  the    Umd. 

a  mulch,  fertilizer,  conserver  of  moisture,  aiid  <;ive  pro- 
tection to  the  roots  of  plants. 

Even  mixed  manures,  composed  partly  of  straw 
bedding,  may  do  injury,  especially  in  a  dry  time,  if 
applied  in  liberal  quantities  and  plowed  under,  since 
they  break  the  capillary  connection  between  the  sur- 
face soil  and  subsoil,  thus  causing  the  surface  soil  to 
become  drier  than  it  would  had  the  coarse  manures 
not  prevented  the  moisture  from  passing  upwards 
toward  the  surface.  King,*  in  three  years'  experi- 
ment with  barn  manures,  found  "That  for  manured 
fallow  ground  the  surface  foot  contained  18.75  tons 
more  water  per  acre  than  adjacent  and  similar  but 
unmanured  land  did,  while  the  second  foot  contained 
9.28  tons  and  the  third  G..'}8  tons  more  water,  mak- 
ing a  total  difference  in  favor  of  the  manured  ground 
amounting  to  34.41  tons  per  acre.  Tlie  largest  ob- 
served difference  was  72.04  tons  in  the  dry  season 
of  1891.  Early  in  the  spring,  on  ground  manured 
the  year  before  and  fallow,  there  was  an  observed 
difference  amounting  to  31. r)8  tons  per  acre.  *  * 
*  *  *  Wetting  the  surface  of  sand  with  water 
leached  from  manure  reduced  the  rate  of  evapora- 
tion from  the  surface  from  64.98  pounds  per  unit 
area  to  32.72  pounds  in  the  same  time,  under  other- 
wise   identical    conditions." 

•"The  Soil."  pp. -JiSHaK). 


CHAPTER   Vn. 

MANURES    PRODUCED    BY    VARIOUS    ANIMALS. 

The  amounts  and  values  of  the  excrements, 
mixed  or  unmixed  with  bedding,  which  are  produced 
by  different  classes  of  farm  animals  in  given  lengths 
of  time  when  fed  on  varied  amounts  and  kinds  of 
food,  have  been  determined  so  often  and  with  such 
painstaking  accuracy  that  full  reliance  can  be  placed 
on  the  results.  While  it  is  true  that  the  three  ele- 
ments of  chief  value  in  manures  and  animal  ex- 
crements,— nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash, — are 
not  so  available  as  they  are  in  skilfully  manufactured 
commercial  fertilizers,  yet  they  are  usually  computed 
at  commercial  prices,  for  there  should  be  some  conven- 
ient and  uniform  standard  upon  which  to  base  com- 
parisons and  with  which  to  make  calculations.  On 
the  other  hand,  manures  furnish  available  humus, 
and  a  mulch  if  they  are  spread  upon  the  surface,  and 
they  also  tend  to  increase  the  water -holding  power 
of  the  soil,  and  to  improve  its  texture  or  physical 
condition.  In  many  cases  it  is  believed  that  these 
benefits  are  a  full  equivalent  for  the  less  soluble 
character  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  of  manures  as 
compared  with  commercial  fertilizers.  When  the  soil 
has  a  reasonable  amount  of  easily  available  plant- 
ing) 


150  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

food,  it  is  probable  that  such  may  be  the  ease,  but 
the  ultimate  welfare  of  plants  depends  so  much  on 
a  healthy,  vigorous  start  and  abundant  root  devel- 
opment, that  the  more  quickly -acting  commercial 
fertilizei-s  may  be  more  valuable  than  the  slower- 
acting  farm  manures,  whenever  the  land  is  deficient 
in  readily  available  plant -food.  Careful  o})servations 
and  experiments  only  can  determine  the  relative 
values  of  the  constituents  found  in  fertilizers  and 
manures.  The  final  productive  value,  as  evidenced 
in  the  harvest,  depends  so  much  on  the  skill  of  the 
farmer,  on  climate,  character  of  the  plant,  and  rain- 
fall, that  it  can  never  be  certainly  predicated  whether 
profit  or  loss  will  result  in  the  piirchase  and  appli- 
cation of  nitrogen,  potash  and  i)hosphoric  acid  in  an\ 
form.  One  thing  is  certain,  that  the  careful  hus- 
banding of  farm  manures,  and  the  application  of 
them  in  reasonable  quantities  in  almost  any  form,  re- 
sult in  improved  fertility  and  increased  profits  in 
the  final    outcome. 

In  the  computations  of  the  value  of  manures  and 
fertilizers,  the  question  must  constantly  arise  in  the 
mind  of  the  i*eader.  ''If  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
are  worth  7  and  4.')  cents  per  pound  respectively,  is 
the  nitrogen  worth  15  cents  per  pound?"  If  it  is 
secured  in  the  usual  commei-cial  form,  it  cannot  be 
purchased  for  much  less.  If  the  land  is  deficient  in 
mineral  plant-food,  such  cannot  be  augmented  without 
transporting  it  to  the  field  in  some  form  or  other. 
True,  it  can  be  made  more  available  by  tillage  and 
other  iiicaus.     With  nitrogen,  however,  it  is  different, 


Nitrogen    Economically    Secured.  151 

for  positive  additions  can  be  made  to  the  soil  by  the 
use  of  leguminous  plants;  and  this,  too,  with  little 
added  cost,  as  clover  and  similar  plants  furnish  for- 
age of  value  equal  to  the  cost  of  their  production, 
while  the  nitrogen  in  the  roots  and  stubble  augments 
the  store  of  it  which  was  in  the  soil  before  the  clover 
was  grown.  Nitrogen  can  be  secured  quickly  and 
cheaph'  by  j)urchasing  and  feeding  food  containing 
a  high  percentage  of  albuminoids.  Then,  too,  there 
may  be  a  profit  in  feeding  the  animals,  and  if  so. 
the  value  of  the  manures  produced  is  an  additional 
profit;  or  it  may  be  considered  that  the  manures  are 
secured  at  no  cost  but  the  hauling  and  distributing. 

The  foregoing  discussion  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  under  some  circumstances,  nitrogen  is  not  worth 
to  the  farmer  its  cost  price  of  15  cents  per  pound, 
and  that  it  is  usually  better  for  the  farmer  to 
secure  it  through  leguminous  plants  and  manures 
from  animals  fed  a  fairly  narrow  ration,  than  to 
pay  even  10  cents  per  pound  for  it  in  commercial 
forms;  so  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  author  that  all  of 
the  tables  of  values  given  in  the  foregoing  and  suc- 
ceeding chapters  should  be  amended  to  correspond 
with  local  conditions  and  needs. 

Tables  are  published  which  give  estimated  trade 
values  for  fertilizers,  but  they  are  no  more  accurate, 
when  reduced  to  actual  value  as  secured  by  the 
farmer,  than  estimated  values  for  farm  manures  are. 

In  some  towns  stable  manure  is  given  away,  in 
others  it  may  be  sold  for  a  dollar  a  load.  In  the 
production    of   some    special    crops,  the    gardener   may 


152  Thf    FeriiUtij    of  fh,-    iMnd. 

be  willing  to  pay  even  more  than  15  cents  per 
ponnd  for  nitrogen,  if  he  is  not  able  to  get  it  for 
less,  rather  than  to  do  without  it. 

A    DISCUSSION    OP    THK    MANURE    OF    CATTLE. 

At  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  *  the  manure 
produced  in  twenty -four  hours  by  eighteen  Jerse\ 
and  Holstein  grade  cows  in  full  milk  was  weighed 
and  analyzed.  The  following  tables  set  forth  the 
detailed  results,!  and  also  the  amounts  and  kinds  of 
food  used.  The  regular  winter  rations  for  a  day 
were  fed,  as  follows: 

Mixed  hay 114  lbs. 

Maize  ensilage   893     '  • 

Mangolds 186    •• 

Mixed  food 1 .54     " 

The  mixed  food  was  composed  of  12  parts  of 
wheat  bran,  9  parts  cotton -seed  meal,  3  parts  maize 
meal  and  1  part  malt  sprouts,  by  weight,  fed  twice 
a  day. 

TABLE    XI. 

Results  of  the  feeding. 

18  cows  for  Average  per 

Weight  of  18  cows,  20,380  lbs.  1  day.  cow  per  day. 

Food  consumed 1  ..'{47.      lb.-.  ';>.      lbs. 

Water  drunk 87(5.        "  49. 

Total  excretion 1,452..'>  HI. 

Nitrogen 7. .■!.'>  .41    " 

Phosphoric  acid 5.01      •  .28   " 

Potash 7.40      •  .41    " 

•Bull.  27.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  May.  1891. 

tSitrogen  is  here  and  elsewhere  computed,  unless  otherwise  si>ecitied.  at   l.'< 
rents,  phosphoric  acid  at  7  cents,  and  potash  jit  4'-?  cents  per  pound. 


Estimated    Values  of  Manures.  153 


TABLE   XI.  — CONTINUED. 


Weight  of  18  cows,  -JO.riSO  Ihs. 

Valiie  of  nitrogen  

V^alue  of  phosphoric  acid  . . . . 
Value  of  potash 


8  cows  for 
1  day. 

Average  per 
cow  per  day. 

$1.10 

$0.06 

..{.T 

.02 

.33 

.02 

$1.78  $0.10 

TABI-K    XII. 

Percenfa;/!'  rohiposition  of  flie  exrrettie)it . 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen ol 

Phosphoric  acid 35 

Potash ,51 

Computed  value  i>er  ton,  $2.40. 

A  few  days  after  the  above  investigation,  a  second 
one  was  made  with  four  com's  for  twenty-four  hours, 
in  full  milk,  under  similar  conditions: 

TABLE    Xlll. 

Feeding  and  manure— Gross  fig iiret^. 

Lbs. 

Food  per  cow,  per  day    76 

Water      "  "         40 

Excrements  per  cow,  per  day 82 

Total  solid  excrements,  for  four  cows 25.5 

Totalliquid        "  "      "        '•      72.25 

Composition. 

Solids,  *  Liquids.  9  Mixed,  9 

Nitrogen 26  1.32  .49 

Phosphoric  acid 28  .22 

Potash 20  1.  .38 

Value  per  ton,  $2.08. 

The  amounts  of  the  fertilizing  materials  are  set 
forth    in    the    following    table: 


154  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


TABLE   XIV. 

Experiment  with  four  cows,  one  day. 

Daily  «r 

— -Solid ' — Liquid — Both val.  per 

Ihs.     value.         lbs.     value.         lbs.      value.  cow. 

Nitrogen Cm      $0.10         .g.'i      $0.14         1.60      $0.24  $0.06 

Phosphoric  acid . .     .71          .0.5»                                   .71          .05  .01-}- 

PoUsh 50          .02         .72          .03         1.22          .05  .Ol-f 


1.86  .17       1.67  .17        3.53  .34  .085 

Investigations  in  1883  and  1884t  with  three  cows 
three  days  gave  the  following  results  (the  average 
weight  of  the  cows  being  1,192  lbs.): 

TABLE  XV. 

Gross  figures  of  experiment  with  three  cows  three  days. 

lbs. 

Clover  hay  consumed 122 

Cut  maize  stalks  consumed 41 

Cotton-seed  meal  "         ." 45 

Malt  sprouts  consumed 42 

Maize  meal  "  42 

Milk  produced 285 

Manure,  including  45  lbs.  cut  maize  stalk  bedding 802 

The  food  contained  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  estimated  at  $1.60.  The  manure  was  not 
analyzed,  but,  allowing  that  it  contained  60  per  cent 
of  the  fertilizing  raatei'ial  in  the  rations,  the  estimated 
value  would  be,  for  the  three  days,  $0.96  or  $0.10% 
per  cow  per  day. 

The  entire  product  of  manure  at  Cornell  in 
1883-4  was  kept  in  a  covered  barnyard.  The  accu- 
mulated  mixed    and    trampled    manure   of    cattle   and 

•There  was  onl.v  a  trai-e  of  phosphorif  acid  in  the  urine, 
iThird  Report  Cornell  Exp.  St».,  1885. 


Conserved   Manures.  155 

horses  was  about  two  feet  thick.  A  large  number  of 
samples  were  taken  at  various  depths,  chopped  fine, 
mixed  and  analyzed,  with  the  following  results: 


TABLE    XVI. 

Manure  from  a  covered  yard. 

Per  cent. 

Moisture 72.95 

Nitrf)sen 78  at  $0.15 

Pho.sphoric  acid 40  at      .07 

Potash 84  at      .0425 

Value  per  ton,  $3.61. 


During  the  winter,  311  double -box  wagon  loads 
were  produced.  Every  tenth  load  was  weighed. 
The  loads  averaged,  in  round  numbers,  3,000  pounds 
each.  The  winter's  output  of  manure,  therefore,  was 
about  466  tons.  These  results  were  so  astonishing, 
and  the  data  so  imperfect,  that  the  following  year 
the  number  and  kinds  of  animals,  the  time  em- 
braced in  the  investigation,  and  the  weight  of  the 
manure,  were  all  carefully  noted. 

From  October  1,  1884  to  March  2,  1885.  199.25 
tons  of  manure  wei'e  produced  at  Cornell  by  a  herd 
of  12  spring  calves,  7  winter  calves,  1  bull,  24  cows. 
12  horses  and  1  colt,  57  animals  in  all.  Allowing 
that  the  20  young  animals  were  equal  to  10  adults, 
there  would  be  the  equivalent  of  47  full  grown  ani- 
mals. Each  load  of  manure  was  weighed,  sampled 
and  prepared  for  the  chemist,  as  described  above. 
The   numerical   results   are   as   follows; 


156  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

TABLE    XVII. 

Composition  and  computed  raliifs  of  aatnplts. 

Moisture 75.57  per  cent. 

Nitrogen 68    " 

Phosphoric  acid 29    " 

Potash 70    '•      '• 

Nitrogen  at  15  cents $2.04  per  ton. 

Phosphoric  acid  at  7  cents 41    "     " 

Potash  at  4^  cents 60    "     •• 

$3.05 

For  the  150  days $607.71 

Per  cow  per  day .0862 


The  following  table  from  Morton's  Cyelopoedia  of 
Agriculture.  Volume  II.,  gives  the  average  production 
of  manure  in  sev«>ral  experiments,  but  the  average 
weight  and  age  of  the  animals  are  not  given,  and  in 
some  cases  the  food  of  the  animals  was  succulent,  in 
others  air  dried: 


TABLE    XVIII. 

Comparative,  amounts  of  excrements. 

Solids.  Liquids 

A  horse,  annual 12,000  lbs.  3,000  1b 

A  cow,  annual 20.000    ••  8,000 

A  sheep,  annual 760    ••  380 

A  pig.  annual 1.800      •  1.200 


In  order  to  present  a  more  detailed  view  of  the 
quantity,  composition  and  estimated  value  of  farm 
manures  which  are  made  under  various  conditions  and 
in  divers  places,  the  following  figures  are  transcribed 
from  various  sources. 


Anwuvfs   and    Values   of  Manure.  157 


TABLE   XIX. 

Manure  from  cattle  fed  exclusively  upon  the  waste 
from  a  cotton-seed  oil  mill. 

(Bull.  No.  1,  Vol.  II.,  Tennessee  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Moisture 77.50 

Nitrogen 5>'{  at  15  cents,  $1.59 

Phosphoric  acid 22"    7       •'         ..'n 

Potash .'J6  "    4.5    "         .32 


»'?  95 


TABLE   XX. 

A  4-year-old  Jersey  in  milk,  for  ■nine  days  produced  14.8'J  lbs.  of  milk 
and  the  following  amounts  of  excrewenf.f  per  duy. 

(Annual  report  for  1891,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.) 

Solids   49.5  lbs. 

Liquids 21.      " 

Total  per  day 70.5    " 


TABLE   XXI. 

ralue  of  manure  from  six  cows. 

(Same  as  above.) 

Average  weight  of  animals 929.8  lbs. 

"  "        "  solid  excrement 42.      " 

Value  per  ton  of  solid  excrements  of  each   animal. 

Jem  and  Meg $1.31 

"      "       "     2d  trial 1.38 

Nellie 1 .84 

Spot 1.35 

Broad 2.64 

Whitey 2.11 

Average $1.77 


158  Thi'    Fertility  of  the    Tjond. 

TABLE   XXI.— 'ONTINrF-D. 

Urine  per  dftif. 

Jem 15.9  ll>s 

Meg 1  j.4 

Flora 21. 

Spot 8.9 

.»Ntar 6.9 

Broad   17.9 

Nelli.-   2n..5 


A  veruge •. 1  .">.2     •  • 

No  analysis  of   the  urine  is  given,  but  it   is  stated 
to   have    been  even  more  valuable    than    the  solids. 

TABLE    XXII. 

Mixed  manure,  youmj  catlln  and  a   few  horsex. 

(Report  for  188!t.  t'onn.  Exp.  Slit. 

I'fi-  ct-ut.  Her  tot 

Moisture 77.08 

Nitrogen ■">'.>  at  l."j  cents,  $1.59 

Pliosphoric  aeid .{4     •     7      ••  .48 

Potash 71"     4..".  •■  .64 

$2.71 

TABLE   XXIII. 

Mature  cows  liberally  fed,  producing  a  fair  amount  of  wilk 

all  stages  of  gestation. 

(Same  as  almve.) 

Per  cent  Lbs.  i)er  ton. 

Moisture 71.69 

Nitrogen 43  8.6  at  15  cents,  f  1.21* 

Phosphoric  acid ."?  6.     "     7      "           .43 

Pot*sh 48  9.0   •'     4.5"           .43 

92.14 


Composition   of    Various    Manures.  !■'){) 

TABLE    XXIV. 

Old  yttra  manure  from  young  cattle,  fed  hay  in  yard.     Well  rotted, 

washed  manure,  weight  and  bulk  reduced   by  exposure. 

(Same  as  above.) 

Per  cent.     Lbs.  ptT  ton. 

Moisture .54.7 

Nitrogen 4ti  9.2  at  1.5  cents,  $1.:!8 

l^hosphoric  acid 72  14.4"     7      "         1.00 

I'otash l(i  U.2  "     4..")"  .14 


$2.02 

TABLE    XXV. 

Amiount    of    milk  and    of  solid  and   liquid   excrements  produced    by  n 

herd  of  1'2  cows  for  one  year,  computed  by  weighing  the  amounts 

of  solids  and   liquids  for  one  day    in  each   month. 

I  Agr.  College,  Denmark,  1889-92,  Tiddskr.    Landokon.  12,  1891!.) 

Lbs.  per  cow  per  year. 

Milk  7,519 

Solid  excrements 18,432 

Urine (),454 

I'omposition  of  urine. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 1.187  at  Ij    cents,  !f3. 56 

Phosphoric  acid 021"  7        "  .0.'! 

Potash 1.272"  4.5     "         1.14 


$4.7:$ 

Per  cow  per  year 15.20 


Urine  of  entire  herd  per  year $183.12 

TABLE    XXVI. 

Manure  from  vtilch  cows. 
(Report  for  1890,  Conu.  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.     Lbs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 82.42 

Nitrogen 42  8.4     at  15    cents,  $1.26 

Phosphoric  acid 204        4.08    "    7         "  .29 

Potasn 3  C.         "    4.5     •'  .27 

$1.82 


160  The    Fertility  of  the    Uind. 

This    manure    (Table    XXVI.)    was     kept    closely 
packed   in  a  manure   house   having   a  cement   floor. 

TABLE   XXVII. 

Fresh  row  manure. 
(S.  W.  Johnson.) 

Per  cent.     hbs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 8.5. .T 

Nitrogen :{8        7.0  at  I.t    cents,  $1.14 

Phosphoric  acid 1(5        .'5.2  ''    7         "  .22 

Potash 36        7.2"    4. .5      '•  .32 

$1.(>8 

TABLE    XXVIII. 

Cow  matiuir  fi-om  cfiilfr  of  dung  heap. 
((ierniiiiiy,  Si-liniid.  I 

IVrcpnt.  l.lis.  i>er  ton. 

Moisture 77.71 

Nitrogen ')i  lO.Satl.j    cents,  $1.62 

I'hosphoric  acid l.'i  2.6  "    7        ••           .18 

Potash 46  9.2  ••    4.5     "           .41 

$2.21 

TABLE    XXIX. 

From  rows  fed  100  ^bs.  green  clover,  .'>  lbs.  rye  straw  per  day. 
(R.  H.  Hoffman.) 

Per  cent.       I^bs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 72.87 

Nitrogen 7<t         1.").8  at  !.■>    cents,  $2.37 

Phosphoric  acid 20  4.     ••    7        "  .28 

Potash 1.69        33.8"    4..".      •         l..")2 

$4.17 


Summary.  161 


TABLE   XXX. 

Fresh  cow  manure  with  litter. 
(Wolfif.) 

Per  cent.  Lbs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 77.5 

Nitrogen 34  6.8  at  15    cents,  $1.02 

Phosphoric  acid 16  3.2"    7       "           .22 

Potash 40  8.     "    4.5     "           .36 


$1.60 

TABLE   XXXI. 

Summary  of  the  computed  values  of  the  cattle  manures. 

Per  ton. 

Cornell  University  Experiment  Station $2.46 

"       2.08 

"       3.61 

Tennessee  Experiment  Station 2.22 

Connecticut        "  "         2.71 

2.14 

"  "        (rotted) 2.52 

"  "         1.82 

S.  W.  Johnson 1.68 

Schmid  (Germany) 2.21 

R.  H.  Hoffman 4.17 

Wolff 1 .60 

Agriculture  College,  Denmark  (urine)  4.73 

New  York,  Geneva  (solids)    1.77 


Av€fi£.ge  per  ton $2.43 

A  few   of   the   samples   were    slightly    mixed    with 
manure  from  other  animals. 

TABLE   XXXI 1. 

Cow  manure,  various  kinds  of  feeding. 

(Dr.  Thompson,  Morton's  Encycloi>edia  of  AKriealtore.) 

Excrements. 

Cows  fed  100  lbs.  grass,  produced  per  day 71      lbs. 

"       "      80    "         "       4%  barley,  produced  per  day 78 

'■*       "      25    "     hay,  lOK  crushed  malt,  produced  per  day. ..     77 

"        "    168    "     turnips,  11  straw,  produced  per  day 135*4     " 

L 


162  The    Fertility   of  fh^    hind. 

TABLE   XXXllI. 

Manure  from  calvex. 

(Bull.  .V).  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.) 

Exp.  No.  1  No.  1' 

Length  of  experiments  in  days 12.  15. 

Weight  of  two  calves  in  pounds .'179.  .'»80. 

Pounds  of  nitrogen  consumed 5.042  .1.064 

"  phosphoric  acid  consumed 1.939  1.308 

"  potash  consumed \.'A9  1.871 

Pounds  of  nitrogen  recovered 1.9»;i  2.22 

"         "  phosphoric  acid  recovered 314  .820 

"         "  potash  recovered 1 . o.^fi  1 .642 

Manure  per  ton $1 .69  $2.07 

Excrement  per  ton $1 .6(1  $2.79 

Lot  1  was  fed  largely  on  skimined  milk,  receiving: 
707  pounds  during  the  experiment.  Lot  2  had  no 
skimmed  milk,  its  food  consisting  of  maize  and 
linseed  meal,  bran  and  hay.  The  ])otash  consumed 
in  experiment  No.  1  is  slightly  less  tlian  the  amount 
recovered.  This  discrepancy  is  no  larger  than  might 
be  expected  from  the  fact  that  no  two  samples  can 
ever  be  exactly  the  same.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in 
experiment  No.  2,  nearly  all  of  the  potash  consumed 
was  recovered  in  the  excrements.  It  is  evident  that 
while  these  young  animals  utilized  a  large  proportion 
of  the  nitrogen  and  a  fairly  lil)eral  proportion  oi  tin 
phosphoric  acid,  they  stored  up  only  a  small  portion. 
if  any,   of    the   potash. 

STUDIES     OF     HORSE    MANURE. 

The  value  of  manure  from  horses,  like  that  from 
'ither   species    of    animals,   is    modified    by    age.    food. 


Horse    Mnuiof,   Hoir    Modified.  163 

and  kind  and  amount  of  bedding.  While  the  ex- 
crements contain  less  moisture  than  those  produced 
by  cows,  the  liberal  amount  of  bedding  used  in  the 
horse  stable  usually  reduces  the  value  of  the  manure 
per  ton  to  that  produced  by   the  cows. 

Nine  horses  produced  in  one  day,  when  not  at  work, 
bedded  with  38%  lbs.  straw,  as  follows  (Bull.  13,  Cor- 
nell  Exp.  Sta.  1889): 

Weight  of  manure 529.5  lbs. 

•'        "  excrements 491.      •' 

Average  excreted  per  horse  per  day 54.5    ' ' 


TABLE    XXXI V. 

Composition  of  manure  of  above  homes. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water   70.79 

Nitrogen 51  at  15    cents,  $1.5:{ 

Phosphoric  acid 21  "    7         "  .29 

Potash 53"    4.5      "  .48 

$2.30 
Per  horse  per  day .062 


TABLK    XXXV. 

Oross  figures  from  eight  horxes  one  d'ly,   when  not  at  work. 

(Bull.  13.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.) 

Lbs. 

Total  weight,  manure  and  bedding 490. 

Weight  of  bedding 30. 

Total  weight  of  excrements,  solid  and  liquid 466. 

Average  excreted  per  horse  per  day 58.25 

Per  ton  of  manure $2.30 

Per  horse  per  day 075 


164  Thf    Fertility    of   the.    Land. 

TABLR  XXXVI. 

Manurr  from  all  the  horsen  in  the  gtahlen  for  7  days. 
(Ball.  27,  Cornell  Exp.  Su.) 

Uzcrement 3,319  lbs. 

Straw  bedding 681     •  • 

4,000      •• 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 72. 

Nitrogen 49  at  l.^i    cents,  $1.47 

Phosphoric  acid 37  '  •    7        "  .52 

Potash 90"    4..-.       •  .81 

$2.80 

TABLE   XXXVII. 

^ving  the  composition  of   the  straw  used   for  bedding.     Owing    to  the 
tmall  amount  of  water  content  as  compared  with  the  manure- 
it  shows  a  relatively  high  value.      Wheat  straw 
used  for  bedding,  sampled  in  April. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water G.70 

Nitrogen 61  at  15    cents,  $1.83 

Phosphoric  acid 28  "    7        "  .39 

Potash 70"    4.5      "  .63 

$2.85 

TABLK    XXXVIII. 

Excrements   from   10  draft    horses  at    work  for  11    days,  two  of    which 

were  Sundays.     On  the  other  days  they  were  out  of  the 

stable  an  average  of  about  eight  hours. 

Total  excrements,  3,461   lbs. 

(Cornell.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 47  at  15  eenU,  $1.41 

Phosphoric  acid 39"    7       "  .55 

Potash 94   "    4.5    "  .84 

$2.80 
Average  per  horae  per  day .043 


Summary   of  Horse    Manure.  165 

Computing  the  loss  of  excrements  while  the  horses 
were  at  work  from  the  results  given  in  the  following 
tables,  it  is  found  that  three -fifths  of  the  excrements 
were  saved.  If  all  had  been  saved,  the  result  would 
have  been  a  little  more  than  7  cents  per  day  per  horse. 

TABLE   XXXIX. 

Amount  and    content    of   7>wtn<re    front    four  work  horxex  and  one 
2-year-old  cult  in  CJ  honrx. 

(Bull.  56,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  18fl.'!.) 

Total  weight  of  horses (),410       lbs. 

Land  plaster  used 129        " 

Straw  bedding 112.75    " 

Total  weight  of  manure o55        " 

Cotnpnsition  of  nifniurr. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 48. (i9 

Nitrogen 49  at  15    cents,  $1.47 

Phosphoric  acid 2G  "7  "  ..36 

Potash 48"    4..")        •  .43 


Manure $2.26 

Excrements .S.20 

Excrements  per  year  per  1,000  lbs.,  live  weight .$27.74 

"    day     '•        "       "        "  "        070 

Excrements  recovered  per  1 .000  lbs.  ))er  day 48.8  lbs. 

TABLE   XI.. 

Siimmari/  of  computed  values  of  liorxc   manure. 

(Cornell  Exp.  Sta.') 

Per  ton. 

9  horses $2.30 

8       "      2.30 

All  horses  in  stable 2.80 

10  draft  horses 2.80 

4  horses  and  one  colt 2.26 

Excrements 3.20 

Straw  bedding,  Table  xxxvii 2.8.3 

Average  of  all  manure 2.49 


166  The    FeriilUy    of  ihe    Ixind. 

This  shows  that  the  computed  value  of  the  ex- 
crements is  nearly  one -half  of  the  cost  of  the  food. 
Experience  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  this  value  can 
seldom  or  never  be  realized  from  the  manures  wlien 
applied  to  the  land;  but  there  is  no  other  way  of 
makinj;  comparisons  between  various  kitids  of  manures 
and  fertilizers  Avithout  using  a  uniform  standard  for 
comparison.  As  has  l)een  explained,  the  real  values 
of  both  manures  and  fertilizers  to  the  farmer  are 
dependent  u[)on  so  many  conditions  that  the  true 
recoverable  value  can  never  be  known  in  advance. 
It  would,  perhaps,  be  safe  to  value  l)arn  manures 
at  fully  one -half  of  their  computed  values,  as  shown 
by  the  tables. 

LIVERY     STABLE     M.WURE. 

Livery  stables  in  villages  in  the  grain -growing  dis- 
tricts often  arrange  with  the  farmer  for  fresh  straw 
bedding  without  charge,  the  resulting  manure  to  be- 
long to  the  fanner  who  furnishes  the  straw.  From 
investigations  made  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, and  from  facts  furnished  by  Director  H.  P. 
ArmsViy,  State  College,  Pa.,  the  following  conclusions 
may  be  drawn: 

That  a  ton  of  straw  as  it  comes  from  a  thresher, 
and  as  used  in  village  livery  stables,  will  result  in 
five  tons  of  manure,  if  drawn  as  soon  as  made. 

That  fresh  horse  manure  computed  as  above  is 
worth  $2.4.")  ])('!•  ton. 

That     ;i     t<»n     of    straw.     f(im|tiitcd     as     b»'fort',     is 


Sheep   Manure   Affected   by   Food.  167 

worth  for  manurial  purposes  $2.75  per  ton.     We  then 
have  data  for  the  following  figures: 

Five  tons  of  manure  at  $2.45 $12.25 

Less  one  ton  of  straw  at  $2.75 2.75 


$9.50 


There  appears  to  be  a  value  of  .$9.50  to  compen- 
sate for  drawing  one  ton  of  straw  to  the  village 
and  five  of  manure  back  to  the  farm;  but  if  the 
manure  is  thrown  out  of  the  stable  under  the  eaves 
and  left  for  any  considerable  time,  one-third  to  one- 
half  of  its  value  will  probably  be  lost.  Then,  too,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  fertilizing  constitu- 
ents ill  the  manure  are  computed  at  liberal  prices. 

DISCUSSION    OF    SHEEP    EXCREMENTS. 

Two  sheep  were  fed  in  each  of  six  experiments, 
each  animal  standing  on  a  galvanized  iron  pan 
(Bull.  56,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1893).  In  order  to 
show  the  effect  of  foods  on  the  composition  of  ma- 
nure, the  following  tables  are  given: 


TABLE   XLl. 

Food 

consumed. 

No.  of 
exp. 

Water. 

Lbs. 
hay. 

Lbs. 
maize. 

Lbs. 
oats. 

Lbs. 
wheat 
bran- 

Lbs. 

Cot. -seed 

meal. 

Lbs. 

linseed 

meal. 

1 

185.75 

81.25 

11.5 

11.5 

2 

144.25 

58.5 

11.25 

11.25 

:i 

188. 

50. 

40.55 

41.25 

4 

298. 

92.5 

.35.29 

17.64 

8.82 

.■i 

:^74.25 

76.0 

.38.14 

19.07 

9.54 

G 

194.25 

t)7. 

4.5t) 

17.7P 

8.RS 

.77 

168  The    Fertility    of  the    Ijind. 

Composition  of  food  consumed. 

No.  of  exp 1  2  3  4  5  6 

Daysofexp 15  12  13  10  14  21 

Nitrogen  (lbs.)  .   1.92         1.48        2.298      4..345  4.25  2.445 

Phos.  acid  (lbs.)     .531         .425        .814      2.12  2.19  1.12 

Potash  (lbs.)  ...   1.28  .949       1.078      2.299  2.14  1.43 

Excrement  recovered. 

Nitrogen  (lbs.)  .   1.08          .994  1.8          2.83  1.59  1.7.-.S 

Phos.  acid  (lbs.)     .35          .298  .665       1.466  1.08  1.1(6 

Potash  (lbs.)  ...   1.089        .830  .963       1.06  .77  ..541 

Manure  per  ton.. $3. 16      $2.65      $3..30      $3.49      $3.15    $4.17 
Excrement,  ton  .  3.35        3.01        4.55        6.62        3.44      4.8.T 

In  the  above  experiment,  fine -cut  wheat  straw  of 
known  composition  was  used  for  })edding  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  keep  the  sheep  clean.  The  sheep  were 
medium -sized  grade  Shropshires  liberally  fed  on  grain, 
beets  and   hay. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  No.  '•)  how  tiie  relatively 
more  liberal  grain  ration  rai.sed  the  value  of  the  ex- 
crements, as  compared  with  1  and  2,  over  $1.00  per 
ton;  and  it  is  also  interesting  to  note  in  experiment.>< 
4,  5  and  6,  how  markedly  the  value  of  the  excre- 
ments is  affected  by  the  character  of  the  food.  The 
average  value  of  the  manure  of  three  pens  of  sheep, 
fed  little  more  than  a  maintenance  ration,  as  com- 
pared with  the  three  pens  fed  more  liberally  on  a 
narrower   ration,   is  as  follows: 

TABLE    Xl.II. 

Average  computed  value  of  excrements  of  sheep. 

Pens  1 ,  2  and  3   $.3.64  per  ton. 

"     4.  5    "    6   4.97    ••       " 

AvfTRgeofall $4  30    "       " 


Sheep,  Calf  and   Pig   Manure.  169 

TABLE   XLIII. 

Three  sheep,  fed  33  2-3  day.i  utanding  on  galvanized  pann; 
weight  of  excrements,  723  lbs. 
(Bull.  27,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1891.) 

Percent;  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 1.      at  15  cents,  $3.00 

Phosphoric  acid 08  '•     7      "  .11 

Potash 1.21  ••     4.5"         1.09 

$4.20 

TABLE    XLIV. 

Average  percentage  of  fertilizing  elements  recovered  in  nil  erperim<'>il-< . 

Nitrogen,  S  Phos.  acid,  ^  Pota.sh,  ' 

Sheep   G2  .73  .66 

Calves 50  .30  .63 

Pigs 80  .73  .80 

The  preceding  tables  show  that  the  total  values  and 
the  percentages  of  fertilizing  constituents  vary,  as 
might  be  expected.  The  percentage  recovered  with 
swine  is  larger  than  with  sheep  and  calves.  This 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  swine  digest  and  assimi- 
late a  larger  amount  of  the  carbohydrates  and  a  less 
amount,  taken  together,  of  the  other  constituents, 
than  either  sheep  or  calves  do.  The  amount  of  fer- 
tilizing elements  recovered  is  dependent  on  so  many 
conditions,  as  the  power  to  assimilate  food,  the  age 
and  species,  and  the  kind  and  quantity  of  surplus 
products  produced  by  the  animal,  that  only  a  general 
average  can  be  reached,  which  must  be  amended  as 
experiments  throw  more  light  on  the  subject. 

Sheep  have  been  so  frequently  used  for  conduct- 
ing digestion  and  other  experiments,  that  it  was 
hoped  when   this  book   was   begun  that  extended  data 


170  The    FerfilHij    of   thp    hand. 

could  V)t'  secured,  but  it  is  found  that  the  digestion 
experiments  furnish  little  material  which  is  applica- 
ble to  the  manure  problem,  since,  in  order  to  con- 
duct digestion  experiments  accurately,  the  animals 
used  of  necessity  are  placed  under  al»normal  and 
uncomfortable  conditions . 

The  following  figures  show  the  cost  of  food  and 
computed  value  of  manures  of  fattening  lambs. 
Twelve  lambs  were  fed  in  four  lots.  They  were 
shorn  in  November  and  fed  until  April. 

TABLE   XLV. 

MntnirinI    raluf  of  the  rations  fed,  allowimj   that    Hi)  p*r  rent    wax  re- 
covered in  the  excrements.  —  Pounds. 

(Bull.  8,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta..  lf<s<».t 

Cotton-seed  Timothy  .Man                        Clover 

meal.       Bran.  .Maize.  hay.  eoUIh.  Turnips,     hay. 

I.<.t  111..  238  228  125          97 

Lot  IV..    10«           233  151           49           312 

I.otV...     02             62  204  255  143           99 

Lot  VI..     (i2            62  208  2.34 

Cost  of  rati"ii. 

Co.si  of  Man\irial  less 

ration.  valtie.  value  of  niaimrp. 

Lot  III    (carbonaceous) $;!.7(»  $1.12  *2.5H 

Lot  IV  (  nitrogenous  1   4.(>»)  3. .56  1.1" 

Lot  V  (intermediatf.  with  roots)     4.7h  2.10  2.68 

Lot  VI  (             ••         without     ••     I     4.51  1.97  2.54 


$17.65  $8.75  $8.90 

From  the  above,  it  appears  that  the  computed  value 
of  the  manure  from  fattening  lambs,  as  compared  with 
the   cost  of  food,    is  as  follows  : 

("oat  of  food tH-BS 

Value  of  manure 8.75 


Constituents    of  Pig    Manure  171 

MANURE  AND  EXCREMENTS  OF  SWINE. 

The  following  statistics  give  the  percentages, 
amounts,  and  computed  values  of  three  constituents 
of  the  excrements  and  manure  of  pigs  and  mature 
swine. 

TABLE    XLVI. 

Pi(/  iiKnuiif. 

(9th  Annual  Report  X.  Y.  State  Kxp.  Sta.) 

Ration  .'ibout  ~'>  per  cent  maize  ensilage,  25  per  cent  bran  and  middlings 

Percent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 54  at  M    cents,  $1 .62 

Phosphoric  aciil (ifi  "    7         "  .92 

Potash 7:!  •■    4.5      ••  .H5 

$;f.io 

Ration  about  75  per  cent  maize  on  cob.  25  per  cent  bran  and  middlings. 

}'cv  f(  lit.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 57  at  15    cents,  $1.71 

Phosphoric  acid S'.i  ''    1         ''         1.16 

Potash 37  •  •    4.5      •  •  .3^ 

$3.20 

TABT.B    XT. VII. 

Hogs   fi'fl  oil   htnir  f/ti rlniij''  inid   ntaize.   weal. 
'  Keport  foi-  I8!I0,  Conn.   Exp.   Sta.' 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 65.2,'? 

Nitrogeti 58  at  15    cents,  $1.74 

Phosphoric  acid 80"    7         "         1.12 

Potash 10"    4.5      ••  .09 

12.95 


172  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

TABLE    XLVIII. 

Pig  manurr.—  Ttro  lots  of  pigs,  four  in  eneh,  frd  standing  on  galvan- 
ized iron  pans  sfrrn  days.     Lot  I  fed  maize  meal  ;   lot  ;' 
fed  two  parts   maize  meal  and  1  »f  firsh   meal. 

(Riill.  JT.  Cornell  Exp.  Sin.,  lWil.> 

Composition  of  errrrmrnls. 

Carbonaceous  Nitrogenous 

ration,  ration, 

Lot  1.  I»t  2.         Average, 

Percent.  Percent.      Percent. 

Nitropen 74  .92  .83 

Fho.sphori<'  at-id 01  .Of.  .04 

Pota.sli .58  .1,4  .f.l 

Pcrt-.n $2.94  $.!.41  $.3.18 

The  pifjs  used  in  these  ('.\i)oriments  were  taken  from 
two  lots,  one  of  whieh,  for  some  time  previous,  had 
been  feed  a  nitro<jfenous  and  the  other  a  carbonaceous 
ration,  and  this  accounts  for  the  difference  in  the 
weifjhts  of  the  two  h)ts  wlien  put  on  pans.  The  four 
pipfs  fed  the  carbonaceous  ration  weighed  426  lbs. ; 
those   fed  a   nitrogenous  ration  weighed  600   lbs. 

TABI.K   XLIX. 

I'olue    of    manure     jur     i/rar    pi  r   /ii<f    of     l,yi  Ihs..    fed  nn   n   narrow  or 

nitrogenous  ration. 

Nitropn #2.64 

I'liosphoric  iK-iil 08 

Potash .52 

Per  year $3.24 

\iilur    of    manure    per    year    pir    pig    of    151)    Ih.s..     fed    on    a     wide    or 
riirb'innceous   ration. 

Nitn.K<Mi $0.91 

Phoxjilmric  acid 091 

Potash 183 

P.T  x.ar .fl.184 


Carbonaceous   vs.  Nitrogenous    Rations.         173 

Comp-Kted  value  per  year  per  ion  Ihs.  live  weight. 

Fed  on  a  narrow  or  nitrogenous  ration $2.16 

"    "  "  wide      "  carbonaceous    "      79 


TABLE    L. 

Amounts  and  value  of  manure  produced  by  pigs  fed  for  seven  days, 

standing  on  large  galvanized  iron  pans.     Three 

pigs  in  each  experiment. 

(Bull.  56,  Cornell  Exi).  Sta.,  1893.) 

Food  coHxanifd. 

Wheat  Linseed       Meat 

Skim  milk.     Maize  meal.       bran.  meal.       scraps. 

Lotl 110  lbs.            64.5  32.1 

"    2 108    •■              59.32  29.66 

•'    3 1.35    ••                 4.57             4.57  6.86 

Average  weight  of  pigs. 

Lot  1   137  lbs.  Total  weight,  411  lbs. 

"2 153  "  "  "         459  " 

"3 Ill   •■  "  "         .333  " 

Amount  of  fertilizing  material  in  food  consumed. 

Nitrogen.  Phos.  acid.  Potash. 

Lot  1  4.698            2.29  .589 

"2 4.723             2.27  .624 

"    3 1.34                 .59  .322 

Amount  of  fertilizing  material  recovered. 

Lotl  3.217  1.70  .534 

"2 3.481  1.45  -472 

"3 1.330  .48  .323 

Excrements.  yahie  of  excrements. 

1,000  lbs.  live  animal  1,000  lbs.  live  animal 
per  day.  per  day. 

Lot  1 108.9  lbs.  $0.2106 

"    2 75.8    "  .186 

"    3 56.2    "  .104 


174  Thf     Fn-tnUii    <>/    /In     LnmJ. 

(^ompoxiliiiii   lit  Jill/   wnninr   ( iinpiililixhrrl ). 

Wmer,  Nilrouen.  Phos.  nrid,  Potash, 

jieroeiit.  j>ercpiit.  i>errent.  ixTrent.  Per  ton. 

Lot  1 78.47  .88  .48               .JO  $.'1.48 

"    2 74.58  .;»1  .4(1               .JM  :t.46 

••    :< 09. ."M  .74  ..'{<»               .40  2.70 

It  i.s  scon  in  what  a  marked  (le^rco  the  food  con- 
sumed effects  the  quality.  The  nitrogenous  pio- 
<hieed  three-fold  more  excrements  than  the  carbon- 
aceous rations. 

TABLE    1,1. 
Siinimn rif   <■''  rniii /iiiliil   nilur's  of  pi<i    uiiniurt. 

Kxcrements  Manure 

jterton.  i)er  ton. 

New  York  Experiment  Station  ((ieneva)   $3.19 

'•         •'               ••                 "                 "           :i.20 

Connecticut                           ••         2.9."» 

Cornell  "  "         S'J.'.U 


:i.41 
:t.lH 


"  "  "       :i.48 

:i.4<; 

2.94 

Average  <>f  manure 3.20 

"  excrements 3.18 

AXALYSK8  OK  THK  EXCREMENT  OF  FOWLS. 

TABLE    l.II. 

Composition   of  frfsh    hett    tnintuir. 

'Cornell  E.xi..  Sm.  IXitl,  l.->y.',  unpublished.) 

Mixer!  ration.  tVil  iMjnal  parts  corn  and  oats. 

Percent.     Per  ton. 

Water 46.84 

Nitrogen 1.38         i«4.14 

Phosphoric  acid ")(•  .70 

I'otash 41  .37 

•5.21 


H(>)\    Manure.  175 

rarbonaceous  ration,  of  nothing  but  oorn. 

Percent.  Per  ton, 

Water 26.74 

Nitrogen 1.10  $3.30 

Phosphoric  acid 24  .34 

Potash 27  .24 

$3.88 

Nitrogenous  i-atioii.  two  jiarts  wlieat  to  one  cracked  peas. 

IVrceiit.  Per  toil. 

Water 24.4;! 

Nitrogen 1.10  $3,30 

Phosphoric  acid 47  .66 

Potash  29  .26 

$4.22 

Mixed  ration,*  eciuul  i)afts  i-orii  and  oats. 

I'er  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water :!!».(;7 

Nitrogen 74.s  $2.24 

Pliosphoric  acid 22  .31 

Potash 21!  .22 


$2.77 


TABLE    LIIl. 

Hen  mil iiK rt ,  sun  dried. 
(Cornell  Kxp.  Stii.,  I,sff2,  unpublished.) 

Percent.         Per  ton. 

Water 4.25 

Nitrogen 2.  $6.00 

Phosphoric  acid 85  .63 

Potash. 35  .:n 

$6.94 

*  Piaster  'J  lbs.  to  1  lb.  ot  manure  added  to  prerent  loss  of  nitroKeu. 


nn  The    FfriilHy    of  the    Ijtnd. 

TABLC   LIV. 

Frenh  hen  manure. 
(Bull.  8(,  New  Jersey  Exp.  Su.) 

Per  cent.  Per  toa. 

^ater 55. 

Nitrogen 1.09  at  15  cents,  $3.27 

Phosphoric  acid 92"     7      "        1.29 

Potash 45"     4.5"  .40 

$4.96 

TABLE    LV. 

Manure  of  fotcls,  fresh. 
(8th  Annual  Report  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.) 
Pen  6.  Percent.  Per  ton. 

Water 59.7 

Nitrogen 1.40  at  15  cents,  $4.20 

Phosphoric  acid 92"     7      "        1.28 

Potash 32"     4.5    "  .28 

$5.76 

Pen  7.  Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 55.3 

Nitrogen 1.14  at  15  cents,  $3.42 

Phosphoric  acid 72"     7      "        1.00 

Potash 25"     4.5"  .22 

$4.64 
Pen  6,  average  value  per  fowl,  14  cents  per  year. 
"    7,       "  10     "        "       " 

TABLE    LVI. 

Hen  manure,  air-dried, 

(Same  as  above.) 

Nitrogenous  ration. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 7.44 

Nitrogen 1.82  at  15    cents,  $5.46 

Phosphoric  acid 2.21    "    7        "        3.09 

Potash 1.11"    4.5     "         1.00 

$9.55 


Analyses   of  Hen    Manure.  177 

Carbonaceous  ration. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 7.13 

Nitrogen 1.53  at  15    cents,  $4.59 

Phosphoric  acid 1.92"    7         "         2.68 

Potash 1.01"    4.5     "  .90 

$8.17 

TABLE    LVH. 

Another  analysi.i  of  hen  manure,  fresh. 
(7th  Annual  Report  Mass.   Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 45.73 

Nitrogen 79  at  15    cents,  $2.37 

Phosphoric  acid 47  "    7        "  .65 

Potash    18"    4.5      "  .16 

$3.18 

Air-dried. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 8.35 

Nitrogen 2.13  at  15    cents,  $6.39 

Phosphoric  acid 2.02"    7        "        2.82 

Potash 94"    4.5      "  .84 

$10.05 

TABLE    LVIII. 

Another  Massachusetts  analysis  of  hen  manure,  fresh. 
(Bull.  37,  Mass.  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 58.98 

Nitrogen 1.20  at  15  cents,  $3.60 

Phosphoric  acid 1.       "     7       "        1.40 

Potash 32"     4.5"  .28 

$5.28 
M 


178  The    Fertility    of  the    Uivd . 

TABLE    LIX. 

Frexh  hen    mavun. 
(Report  1890,  Conn.  Exp.  Sih.,  i>ait«'  8X.  • 

Peri-ent.  Per  ton. 

W»t«.r :i4.87 

Nitrojffn ij(i  at  ir»  cents,  $\A\H 

Phoitpboric  acU\ '.i^i  "7       ■•  .4it 

Potash .'U;  ••     4..'.  ••  ..TJ 

r2.4!t 

The  following  averages  of  value  and  water  eonteiit 
in  hen  manure  are  made  from  the  above  tables  : 

TABI-K    I,X. 

Water,  Per  ti.ii. 
per  cent. 

Fresh  manure 55.  $4.y«) 

pen  C  ( N.  Y.  State  Sta.  I .59.7  5.7ti 

"7       "           "          ••     55. .'i  4.(i4 

( Mass..  2 ) ,52.35  4.2:t 

34.87  2.49" 

(("ornell,4l .{4.42  4.02 

Average 48. til  $4.3.') 

Water.  Per  ton. 
IKT  cent. 

Nitrojfeiious  riitiou.  air-(irif<l  i  N.  V.  .^tul»'  ."^ta.  i .  .    7.44  $9..5."i 

rarhoiiaceous  ration.     ••                ••         ••         •■       ..    7.13  8.17 

Massaohuscttx.                  •           H.X,  10.0.'> 

Cornell,                                •           4.25  t;.94 

.\verajre (!.79  $8.G8 

TABLE    LXI. 

Pit/fOH   manure. 

(Storer.  .Vifricultiire,  i,  p.  369.) 

Excrement  inipurtt-d  into  Knjrland  from  Egypt. 

I'er  cent.        Per  ton. 

Water G.  75 

Nitrotren 0.5  $19. .50 

F'hosphoric  acid 8.  11 .20 

I'otash 50  .45 

$30.15 

•Sample  •iiutuiued  about   10  per  cent  of  earth. 


Pigeon,  Hen    tnid    CoWe    Maninr.  179 

Wein  found  in  excrement  taken  from  church  steeple. 

Per  cent.     Per  to7i. 

Water 11. 

Nitrogen 2.25        ^.75 

Phosphoric  acid 2.  2.80 

Potash  5.")  4.95 

$14..5(t 

TABLE   LXII. 

Anahfftis  <if  /nijfoti  f.nrentents  produced  in  the    I'nUed  States. 

(  HiiiidliDok  of  Experiment  Station  Work.) 

Per  cent.     Per  ton. 

Moisture  10. 

Nitrogen 3.20        $9.60 

Phosphoric  acid 1 .90  2.66 

Potash  1.  .90 

$13.16 

Fresh  hen  manui'e  appears  to  be  worth  nearly 
twice  as  mucli  as  cattle  manure.  This  is  due  in  a 
large  measure  to  less  moisture  content;  while  the  lat- 
ter has  74  per  cent,  the  former  contains  but  31.59 
per  cent  of  moisture,  on  an  average.  Computed  at  the 
same  moisture  content,  the  hen  manure  would  be 
worth  $2.35  per  ton,  against  $2.46  foi-  the  cattle 
manure    (page  153). 

Usuallj-  hen  houses  are  kept  clean  by  sprinkling 
chaff,  dust  or  gypsum  on  the  floors  and  roosts.  In 
such  cases  it  may  easily  happen  that  the  litter  may 
be  so  abundant  that  the  value  of  the  manure  is  re- 
duced to  nearly  that  of  cattle  manure.  On  the 
other  hand,  unmixed  hen  manure,  air-dried,  may  be 
worth  four  times  as  much  as  an  equal  weight  of 
cattle  manure.  Such  concentrated  manures  may  be, 
and  usually  are.  worth  more  per  unit  of  fertilizing 
material     than     unconcentrated     ones,     if     judiciously 


180  The    Fertility    of  the    fxind. 

used,  since  the  value  of  manures  and  fertilizers  is 
dependent,  in  part,  on  their  immediate  availability, 
especially  of  their  nitrogenous  compounds.  If  the 
nitrogen  in  manures  is  available  only  in  the  ad- 
vanced stages  of  the  plant's  growth,  and  is  present 
in  abundance,  it  may  produce  a  positive  injury, 
while  if  available  in  the  early  stages,  it  is  likely  to 
be  very  l)enefi('ial.  Since  hen  manure,  especially  that 
which  is  unmixed  with  litter,  and  is  air-dried,  con- 
tains a  high  percentage  of  readily  available  nitrog- 
enous compounds,  these  compounds  are  of  more  value 
per  unit  than  are  those  contained  in  the  slower- 
acting  cattle  manure.  It  may  be  concluded  that  high- 
grade,  quickly  available  manures  and  fertilizei*s  are 
more  valuable,  unit  for  unit  of  plant -food,  than 
those  which  are  slowly  available,  provided,  always, 
that  they  are  used  with   judgment. 

-MISCELLANKOl'S     STATISTICS     OF     ANIMAL     MANURES. 

The  following  ta])les  were  condensed  and  compiled 
by  A.  Hebert  from  the  experiments  conducted  by 
Andoynaud  and  Zacharewicz,  and  Miintz  and  Girard. 
(Contribution  a  I'etude  du  Fermier  de  Ferme. — Ann. 
Agron.,  II.,  (1885),  pp.  129,  337.  Reported  in  Ex- 
periment Station  Record,  v.,  page  142.) 

TABLE    I.XIII. 

NitroKen,  Phos.  acid,   PotMh,    V&lne 
percent,   percent,    percent,  per  ton. 

Horse  urine l.r.2  .9  $5.37 

Horse  .tolid  excrement 55  .35  .1  2.23 

Cow  urine 1.05  1.36  4.37 

Cow  »olid  excrement 43  .12  .04  1.49 


Bat   and   Barnyard   Manure.  181 

Amount  of  ftrtiliting  material,  solids  and  liquids,  voided  per  animal 

daily. 

Nitrogen.      Phos.  acid.  Potash.  Value. 

Horses   342  lbs.        .131  lbs.        .112  lbs.        $0,065 

Cows 467    "  .071    "  .294    "  .088 

TABLE  LXIV. 

Ditilil  ainoHvfs  of  .sheep  and  pig  manure. 

Value 
Nitrogen.  Phos.  acid.  Potash,     per  ton. 

cu  /Af«    *         An-       A^   -^^  '^e         .31   %         .87%         $2.74 

Sheep  (MUnt.  and  G.rard )    ^j.,3  lb..    .014  lbs.    .039  Ib.s. 

Pigs  (Boussingault) 0326"      .0246"      .50*    "        1.50 

TABLE    LXV. 

Summary  of  above  tables  calculated  per  year  in  pounds. 

Nitrogen.  Phos.  acid.          Potash.  Per  year. 

Horse 125.22  lbs.  47.83  lbs.        43.21  lbs.  $24.06 

Cow 170.63    "  26.01    "  107.58    "  32.25 

Sheep 8.40    "             5.6      "  14.33    "  2.29 

Pig 11.90  "  10.58  "  11.90  "  3.08 

TABLE    LXVI. 

Bat  manure. 
Nine  analyses  from  various  stations  give  the  following  average. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 8.5  $25.50 

Phosphoric  acid 5.95  8.33 

Potash 1.14  1.02 

$34.85 

TABLE    LXVII. 

Barnyard  manure. 
(Bull.  9,  Mass.  Hatch,  1890.    No  particulars  given.) 

Per  cent. 

Moisture 70.16 

Nitrogen 486 

Phosphoric  acid 553 

Potash 614 

*  Estimated. 


182  The    Ffrtility   of  the    Land. 

Lb*,  in  a  ton. 

Nitrogen 9.72  at  15    cents,  $1.46 

Phosphoric  arid 11.06"    7         "  .77 

Potash 12.28  ••    4..t      '  .55 

$2.78 

TABLE    LXVIII. 

Barnifard  mauuren  — another  account. 
(Bull.  14,  Mass.  Hatch,  1H91.) 

Per  rent.  Per  ton. 

Moi.stiire 67.28 

Nitrogen    .'{88  at  1,5    cents,  $1.16 

Pho.sphoric  acid 289"    7         "  .40 

Potash .{87"    4..")       •  .M 

$1.90 

TABLE    LXIX. 

Famnjard    tmninrt    (Voelcker). 

Fresh.  Kotted,  Fresh,  Rotted, 

I)eroent.  percent.  per  ton.  i)er  ton. 

Nitrogen 149  .297  at  1.".    cents,  $0.45  $0.89 

Phosphoric  aci.l 299  .382"  7         "           .42  ..").•{ 

Potash 57:{  .446"  4..')     "           .52  .40 

$1..'{9        $1.82 

TABLE     LXX. 

Mixed  farmyard  manureg   (D.  Anderson,  Scotland). 

Percent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 38  at  15   cents,  $1.14 

PhoRphoric  acid 31   "    7        "  .43 

Potash .32  "    4.."i    ■  •  .29 

$1.86 

TABLE    LXXI. 

F.  J .    Lloyd  estimatex   from   various  data  that  an  average 

Ion  of  farmyard  manure  would  contain  — 

Nitrogen 12  lbs.  at  15    cents,  $1.80 

Phosphoric  acid 5    "      "7       "  .35 

Potash 11      •      "    4.5     ••  .49 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
THE    WASTE    OF    MANURES. 


Fie.  29.     Baptism  of  fnvm  manures.     From  a  photograph  takon  in  Minnesota. 


£^^isaf*.<r 


Fig.  ;iU.     A  typical    old-time  farmyard.       From  a  rei-ent    photograpli    taken  in 
central  Xew  York. 

(183) 


■^'l^.:,.. 


T^S-  32.     Showing  the  effective  means  which  the  farmer  employs  to  advertise  his 
•biftlessness  and  his  lack  of  appreciation  of  home  resources. 


I'iji.  34.     A    Japanese  student's    conception     of   the  wasting  of   farm  niauurec. 
.\Uapte4  from  a  sketch  on  an  examination  paper  at  the  Cornell  University. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE    CARE,    PRESERVATION   AND    APPLICATION 
OF  MANURES. 

The  amounts  of  manures  and  excrements  which 
various  species  of  animals  produce,  and  also  their 
percentage  composition,  have  already  been  shown.  It 
is  impossible  to  set  forth  their  true  value.  Not- 
withstanding this,  it  is  certainly  known  that  they  are 
of  enough  value  to  justify  painstaking  effort  to  learn 
how  best  to  husband  them  until  used,  the  most  ap- 
propriate time  to  apply  them,  and  the  crop  likely  to 
receive  the  greatest  benefit  from  them. 

LOSS    IN    MANURES    DUE    TO   WEATHERING   AND 
EXPOSURE. 

If  manures  are  sheltered,  no  loss  is  sustained  from 
leaching  by  the  passage  of  rain  water  through  them, 
but  loss  may  come  from  other  causes.  Manures  ex- 
posed for  a  time  may  not  suffer  deterioration  from 
the  rain  which  falls  upon  them,  but  rather  be  bene- 
fited, as  in  the  case  of  horse  manure,  which  tends  to 
heat  rapidly  if  not  kept  moist.  When  a  superabun- 
dance of  water  from  the  eaves  of  the  barn  falls  upon 
it,  or  the  layer  or  pile  of  manure  is  shallow,  a  sing^le 

(188) 


Covered    Barnyards.  189 

heavy  shower  may  cause  leaching.  The  only  safe 
method  is  to  control  the  conditions,  in  order  that  the 
minimum  of  loss  is  sustained.  Whenever  an  abun- 
dance of  straw  or  other  coarse  bedding  material  is  at 
hand,  and  when  the  horns  are  removed  from  the  cattle 
or  are  prevented  from  growing,  covered  yards  are 
found  to  be  entirely  satisfactory.  In  these  the  stock 
may  take  mild  exercise  and  be  watered,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  tramp  the  manure,  and  prevent  its  too 
rapid  heating.  If  gypsum  is  distributed  occasionally 
over  the  surface,  the  conditions  of  both  the  yard  and 
the  manure  will    be  benefited. 

A  yard  forty  by  sixty  feet  suffices  for  twenty  to 
twenty -five  full-grown  cows.  Covered  barnyards  give 
opportunity  to  control  conditions,  so  that  there  will  be 
no  loss  from  scattering  the  manure,  from  tramping 
it  into  the  mud,  from  leaching,  from  too  rapid  de- 
composition, and  from  escape  of  the  liquid  manure; 
while  they  furnish  a  most  comfortable  place  for  the 
animals  to  stretch  their  limbs  while  their  stables  are 
being  aired,  to  quench  their  thirst  in  a  comfortable 
atmosphere,  with  water  brought  to  a  temperature,  in 
winter,  of  98°  Fahrenheit;  and  they  give  opportunity 
for  removing  the  manure  when  most  convenient  and 
when  the  roads  and  fields  are  in  suitable  condition. 
Then,  too,  the  manure  is  removed  without  handling 
as  much  rain  water  as  manure,  thereby  preventing 
the  thoughtless  farmer  from  making  a  useless  effort 
to  irrigate  his   fields  by   the   aid  of   a  manure -fork. 

Manure  ])Iatforms  or  shallow,  uncovered,  cemented 
pits    are    sometimes    built    near    the   stables,   in    which 


l!»)  Tilt     FtrfHifi/    of  the    hnitl. 

all  iiiaimn-s  aiv  stored  until  waiit«'(l.  I'sually  tin' 
liquid  niannn's.  augmented  by  the  rain,  make  cisteru8 
neeessary  for  their  storage,  or  the  pit  will  overflow. 
I'nless  absorbents  are  present  in  liberal  amounts,  the 
water  added  by  exposure  is  of  no  l)enefit,  while  it 
m<»st  unnecessarily  increases  the  cost  of  removing 
the  manures. 

Distributing  liquid  manure,  mixed  or  unmixed  with 
rain  water,  by  the  means  of  water-tight  tanks  and 
sprinkling  attachments,  is  seldom  found  to  be  satisfac- 
tory, and  should  be  avoided  if  sufficient  absorbents 
can  be  sccui-«m1  to  change  the  mass  to  a  semi-solid 
state,  suitable  for  handling  with  a  shovel.  The  free 
use  of  bedding  not  only  absorl>s  the  liquid  voidings. 
but  tends  to  i)i-oni(»te  cleanliness  in  the  stable,  and  the 
comfort  of  the  aninuils.  Whatever  method  is  adopted, 
three  things  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind:  comfort 
and  health  of  the  animals,  conservation  of  the  ma- 
nures, and  economy  of  labor  in  removing  them  to 
and  from  their  temporary  storage  place.  In  many 
cases  fully  a  third  of  the  value  of  the  manures  is  ex- 
pended on  them  between  the  stable  and  the  field. 

The  practice  of  removing  manures  from  the  stable 
directly  to  the  field  is  a  good  one  whenever  it  can  be 
carried  out.  Unfortunately  there  are  times  when  the 
fields  are  over-m<»ist.  the  lanes  impassable,  time  lack- 
ing, and  no  suitable  place  ready  to  spread  the  manure, 
and  for  such  emergencies  some  storage  recej)tacle, 
even  though  a  small  one,  should  be  provided.  The 
open  numure  barnyard  is  destined  to  pass  away,  and 
needs  only  a  few  vigorous  kicks  to  hasten  its  departure. 


Jjfnclnmj    of   .UaHin-fS.  1^1 

Manure,  if  placed  in  deep  piles  and  cared  tor,  may 
be  improved  by  partial  rotting  without  sustaining 
much  loss.  Frequently  the  loss  is  fully  balanced  by 
the  increased  percentage  of  available  plant -food  an<l 
by  the  improved  texture  of  the  manure. 

The  need  of  caring  for  manures  is  emphasized  by 
the  following  tables,  which  give  the  results  of  in- 
vestigations conducted  in  1889  at  the  Cornell  Ex- 
periment Station  (Bulletin  XIII.).  The  values  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  have  been  com- 
puted to  correspond  with  those  in  previous  chap- 
ters. The  following  is  one  day's  product  of  nine 
horses : 

Total  weight  of  excrfiiiciits,  solid  and  li(|uid 491.     H)s. 

Weight  of  straw  lieddintr 'M.^>    " 

Total r.L'it..")    •  • 

This  material  was  lightly  packed  in  a  wooden  box. 
not  water-tight,  surrounded  with  manure,  and  left 
exposed  from  March  30  to  September  Hi).  At  the 
end  of  six  months  it  was  found  to  have  sustained 
the    following    losses: 

A  ton  of  this  manure,  (computed  as  in  previous 
tables,  was  worth  $2.30  per  ton  when  fresh:  aftei-  six 
months'  exposure.  $1.32.  Loss,  $0.98  per  ton,  or  42. G 
per  cent. 

In  1890,  4,000  pounds  of  manure  from  the  horse 
stables,  composed  of  3,319  pounds  of  excrements 
and  681  pounds  of  straw,  were  placed  out  of  doors 
in  a  compact  pile  and  left  exposed  from  April  25 
tu    September  22,  at  the  end  of    which    time  the  total 


192  The    FpHllitti   of  th>    htitiL 

weight    had   decreased    to  1,780    pounds.     Tht*   tJihulHr 
results   were   as   follows: 

April  2.').       Sept,  T2.      iM*». 
lbs.  Mis,      iht  cent. 

Gross  weight 4,00<)  1  ,TM\  .".7 

Nitrogen 19. Wi  7.7!*  <i<i 

Phoaphorir  acid 14.80  7.79  47 

Pota.sh Mi  H.(i5  7(> 

Per  ton $2.W)         $1.0«» 

Five  tons  of  cow  manure,  composed  of  9,278 
pounds  of  excrements  mixed  with  422  pounds  ol 
wheat  straw,  were  exposed  in  a  compact  |)ile  for  the 
same  period  as  the  horse  manure  was,  and  under 
similar  conditions,  except  that  300  pounds  of  jjypsura 
were  mixed   with  it.        The  outcome  was    as    follows: 

Lbs.  Lbs.  1a>iii>, 

at  begiiiuiuK.  ut  eiut.  p«^r  cent. 

Uross  weight  10.000  .'■).125  49 

Nitrogen 47  28  41 

Phowplioric  acid ;i2  26  19 

Pota.sh 48  44  8 

Per  ton $2.29  $l.fiO« 

Manures  may  lose  a  large  percentage  of  their 
valuable  constituents  and  yet  be  worth  more  po- 
ton  than  they  were  before  the  loss  occurred.  Con- 
sider, for  instance,  the  five  tons  of  cow  manure 
which  contained  at  the  beginning  47  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, or  9.4  pounds  per  ton,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
investigation     28     pounds,     and     note    that     this    28 

•  V«lue   on    .September   22    of    an    amount    of    manure   which    weicheU    2,0(H) 
Ibi.  on  April  '26. 


ExpoHure    of  Mnvvres   and   Rainfall.  l'J3 

pounds  was  contained  in  2.r)()  tons,  instead  of  in 
the  original  5  tons.  While  the  total  loss  of  nitro- 
gen was  41  per  cent  in  the  exposed  manure,  the  sam- 
ple contained  10.9  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  ton,  or 
1.5    pounds   per   ton    more  than   the  fresh   manure. 

The  following  table  gives  in  brief  the  results  of 
many  experiments  at  Cornell  in  exposing  manures 
during  two  years: 

TABLE    l.XXII. 

Per  ton  Los.s,         Loss, 

at  beginning,  per  ton.  per  tent. 

1889,  horse  manure  in  loose  pile $2.30         .$1.32         42.0 

1890,  "  ' "     2.80  1.74        62. 

1890,  cow  "         "       "       "     2.29  .C9        30. 

1889,  mixed  manure  compacted  in  l)ox     2.24  .23  8.7 

The  rainfall  in  1890  was  unusually  abundant,  as 
is  shown  by  the  following  table  : 

TABLE    LXXIII. 

Bainfall  during  the  progresn  of  the  experiment. 

Ave.  for  Excess  ^  ; 

1890,  12  years,  deficiency  —  ; 

Month.  Inches.  inches,  inches. 

April 3.34  2.  +1.34 

May (J.GO  3.69  -j-^--'! 

June 4.94  3.73  -i-1.21 

July 1.24  3.92  -2.68 

August 4.92  3.18  +1.74 

September 6.62  2.79  +3-83 

Total 27.66         19.31        +8.35 

From   October    1,    1884.    to   March   2,   1885.    191% 

tons  of    mixed  manure    from  horses,  cattle    and   sheep 

accumulated     in     the     covered     barnyard     nt     Cornell 

University.      This     manure    was     the     product     of     12 

N 


194  The    FertiWij    of  the    iMttd. 

spring  calves,  7  winter  calves,  24  cows,  1  bull,  12 
horses  and  1  colt  for  the  five  months.  It  was 
well  compacted  by  the  tramping  of  the  cattle,  which 
were  kept  for  the  greater  part  of  each  day  in  the 
covered  yard.  A  large  numljer  of  samples  of  about 
ten  pounds  each  was  taken  from  the  undisturbed 
mass  by  cutting  out  solid  cubes.  These  were  put 
together,  chopped,  mixed,  divided  and  subdivided, 
and  a  sample  was  taken  for  analysis.  A  similar 
determination  liad  been  made  in  1883-4.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  results,  in  separate  columns,  of 
the  two  years'  determinations: 

TABLE    LXXIV. 

1884-5.         1883-4. 
I>ereent.     percent. 

Moisture  75. .">7  72.95 

Nitrogen G8  .78 

Phosphoric  acid 29  .40 

Pota.sh 70  .84 

In  1895,  an  investigation  was  made  at  the  Cor- 
nell Experiment  Station  to  determine  the  accuracy  of 
.><ampling  manures.  Seventy -six  loads  of  manure, 
which  had  accumulated  in  a  covered  barnyard  from 
•luly  to  October,  were  sami)led  as  the  manure  was 
removed,  by  placing  every  thirtieth  forkful  in  one 
of  three  boxes, —  the  first  forkful  in  box  No.  1, 
the  next  in  No.  2,  and  the  next  in  No.  3.  When 
the  work  was  completed  the  sample  boxes  contained 
about  one  ton  each.  Each  of  these  large  samples 
was  separately  mixed  and  roughly  fined  and  divided 
into  two  e<|ual  parts,  one  of  which  was  saved,  the 
other  discarded.      T,-^^  sample   saved   was   again  mixed 


Variation    in    Weight    of  Animals.  19.") 

and  fined,  and  divided  as  before.  As  the  samples 
became  smaller  by  discarding  one -half,  more  and 
more  pains  was  taken  to  chop  and  fine  the  material 
l)y  means  of  sharpened  spades  and  axes.  When  the 
original  samples  were  reduced  to  about  one  bushel 
each,  the  final  samples  were  taken  for  analysis.  The 
following  table  shows  the  composition  of  the  samples: 

TABLE    I, XXV. 

Box  1,  Box  2,        Box  3, 

pel' <-ent.      percent,    percent. 

Moisture O.^.-'U  n'2.8'>  ti4.02 

Nitrogen 87  .8(i  1.01 

Phosphoric  acid 5!)  .(JO  .'hi 

Potash 1.')  .14  .14 

Studies  were  undertaken  by  Miintz  and  Girard 
from  1883  to*  1887,*-  to  determine  the  loss  or  differ- 
ence of  nitrogen  between  the  amounts  of  food  con- 
sumed by  various  classes  of  animals  and  the  amounts 
recovered  in  manure,  when  the  excrements  were 
fresh,  and  when  left  in  the  stables  for  different 
periods  of  time.  Their  figures  (which  are  given  in 
Table  LXXVI.)  do  not  represent  the  true  losses  due 
to  exposure,  as  no  account  was  taken  of  the  loss  or 
gain  in  weight  of  the  animals.  Even  if  the  animals 
had  been  weighed  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
experiment,  little  would  have  been  gained,  since  the 
weight  of  animals  varies  widely  from  day  to  day. 
Tiie  amount  of  water  drunk  by  a  mature  cow  in  milk 
may  vary  from  a  few  to  seventy-five  pounds  daily. 
Steers  fattened  on  air- dried  corn  and  hay  add  from  ."> 

*Kxpeiiinent  Station  Record,  v.  154;  quoted  from  "Les  Kngrais.  ' 


19fi  Th^    FerfilHn    of  fhf    hind 

to  1.")  per  ('(Mit  of  water  to  the  dn'sscd  can-ass  in  a 
few  weeks  when  turned  on  sneeulent  pastures,  and 
vet  nuiy  gain  little  or  nothing  in  live  weight.  Ani- 
nuils  producing  young,  wool  or  milk  use  more  or 
less  of  the  nitrogenous  comiKMinds  in  their  food  in 
addition  to  those  required  for  maintenance,  and  henee 
could  not  return  in  their  excrements  all  of  the  poten- 
tial nitrogen  contained   in    their   rations. 

TABr.E    LXXVI. 

Losxrs   in   ttiiiniin-  espoxftl  to  ttir. 

.yfanuif    from   sJifrj). 

Fresh.     After  G  months,  l^oss, 

M.S.  Ihs.  lbs. 

Weight  of  inanuro I.".,7K4.1):i  9,281. :{(". 

Dry  iimtttT .".,lfi0.9t!  :i,8(J9.07  1.291.89 

Total  nitrogen 9(i.:i4  8.").:n  1 1 .02 

••     phosphoric  acid 97.88  79.14  18.74 

••     potash 2(!9.84  211.64  .i8.20 

Matiur*'  from   voivs. 

Weight 11.748.:il  7,209.04 

Dry  matter ,-),l.-.().5(;  :?,:{ir).72  1.840.84 

Total  nitrogen 9."). 02  72.09  22.9:i 

••      phosplioric  a<-i«l 4().9,")  4;{.(;.')  H.:! 

'•      potash 170. 4(>  144. 1«  2<;.22 

In  the  i)receding  tables,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  nitrogen  and  potash  are  lost  in  much  larger  pro- 
portions than  the  phos])h(>ric  acid  is.  Dry  earth 
would  largely  prevent  the  loss  of  both  nitrogen  and 
potash.  It  has  been  assumed  by  good  authorities  that, 
on  an  average,  fattening  animals  return  in  their  ex- 
crements !)()  jH'r  cent,  cows  in  milk  and  half -mature 
growing  animals  70  per  cent,  young  calves  fed  on 
milk    and     other    easily    digested    foods    10  to    20    per 


Wasfe   of  Xitrogen.  197 

fient,  and  animals  not  increasinfj  in  weight  or  fur- 
nishing a  surplus  pi-oduct  nearly  100  per  eent  of  the 
nitrogen,  phoplioric  acid  and  potash  of  their  food. 
It  is  seen  how  difficult  it  is  to  determine  the  losses 
due  to  exposure  of  manures  by  noting  the  difference 
between  the  amounts  of  constituents  fed  and  the 
amounts   recovered. 

The  foods  fed  to  certain  animals  were  analyzed, 
and  also  the  resulting  manure,  the  loss  of  nitrogen 
being  found  by  differences  in  some  cases;  in  others, 
the  actual  loss  of  the  manure  after  it  Avas  pro- 
duced was  determined.  In  horse  stalls,  where  the 
solids  were  taken  up  as  soon  as  dropped,  and  the 
urine  absorbed  by  straw  on  cement  floors  and  taken 
up  daily,  71.3  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  was  recovered. 
In  cow  stables,  where  the  excrements  were  removed 
daily,  72.8  per  cent  was  recovered :  when  removed 
twice  a  week.  67.64  per  cent.  In  sheep -pens  bedded 
with  clean  straw,  and  the  manure  allowed  to  accu- 
mulate during  the  period  of  the  experiment,  the  fol 
lowing  amounts  were  recovered: 

TABLE    LXXVII. 

Losses   h)   shcep-pfn    manurf. 

Xitrogen 
Period  of    recovered, 
experiment,     percent. 

June  15-July  7 23  days  49.8 

Julys-      "     31 23     •'  44.7 

Jan.l9-Feb.9 21     ••  54.1 

Feb.  9-Mar.  2 21     ••  56.2 

Mar.  20-Apr.  10 21     •■  .55.7 

A   pile    of    fresh    horse    manure,    comj)osed   of    -t91 
pounds    of     solid     and    liquid     excrements    and    38.5 


198  The    FerliWy    of  flip    Land. 

pounds  of  Ix'ddin^  (total  .")29.r)  pounds),  was  placed 
in  a  wooden  hox.  not  water-tight,  and  surrounded 
with  manure  of  a  similar  character.  The  following 
table  gives  the  composition  of  the  manure  when 
fresh    <and    after    it    was    exposed    six    months: 

TABLE    I, XX VIII. 

\H\\\\.  1:1,  Cornell  Exi>.  St.i.,  \m.i.' 

.\ftpr  6  motith!<' 
Fresh,     pxposure. 
per  cent,     per  cciii. 

Moisture 70.79        81.74 

Nitrofjen .jl  .4ti 

Phosphoric-  arid 21  . l."> 

Potasi) 53         .:n 

Total  wcijrlit  of  inaiiiirc .VJil..")  Ihs.  'M'2  \hs. 

Value  of  one  ton  fresh  manure $'J.:{(t 

'•  the  same  after  (i  months' exposure I. .'{2 

lioss 42  l>er  i-enf . 

A  block  of  undisturbed  luanui-e  one  foot  deep, 
of  cattle  and  horse  excrements  mixed  with  straw- 
bedding,  kei)t  under  cover  and  packed  solidly  by  the 
trami>ing  of  cattle  as  it  was  thrown  from  the  CVn-- 
nell  stables,  was  placed  in  a  close-fitting  galvanized 
iron  pan  with  a  perforated  bottom,  and  left  out 
of  doors  from  March  81  to  September  80.  The  fol- 
lowing  table    shows   the    loss    which    took    place: 

TABLE    LXXIX. 

Loss,  p«r  eent. 

Nitrogen .3.2 

Pliosphoric  acid 4.7 

Potash .'{.■> 

Computed  value  of  one  ton  before  exposure f2.2I 

Value  of  the  same  ton  after  exposure 2.01 

I^oss  per  ton !*.0.->  ]>er  cent 


Experiments   at   New    YorJc    State    Station.       190 

The  compacted  manure  shows  a  far  less  loss  by 
exposure    than    the    losely  piled    manure    does. 

Sheldon  comes  to  the  following  conclusions,  after 
conducting  experiments  similar  to  these  at  the  Kan- 
sas Experiment  Station:  "The  moral  Avhich  the  ex- 
periments i)lainh-  emphasize  is,  that  farmyard  ma- 
nures must  be  hauled  to  the  field  in  the  spring; 
otherwise  the  loss  of  manure  is  sure  to  be  very 
great,  the  waste  in  the  course  of  six  months  amount- 
ing to  full}'  one -half  the  gross  manure,  and  nearly 
40  per  cent  of    the  nitrogen  that    it  contained." 

The  New  York  State  Experiment  Station  has 
made  somewhat  extended  experiments  in  the  loss  of 
manures,  the  results  of  which  are  here  briefly  sum- 
marized : 

A  pile  of  cow  manure  weighing  3,298  pounds 
lost  in  weight  in  one  year  65.19  per  cent,  and  in 
bulk    50    per    cent. 

An  old  compost  heap,  of  which  muck  was  the 
leading  ingredient,  Avas  simultaneously  exposed  for 
the  same  length  of  time,  and  lost  29.45  per  cent 
in    weight,  and    28.6    per    cent    in    bulk. 

The  manure  lost  46.6  per  cent  of  its  manurial 
constituents,  and  the  muck  21.45  per  cent  of  its 
nitrogen,  and  almost  nothing  of  its  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid. 

The  writer  of  Bulletin  23,  September,  1890,  says 
(p.  325):  "Great  losses  of  nitrogen  from  manures  are 
usually  associated  with  drying  and  l)urning  out,  hence 
we  must  consider  these  results  to  be  under  rather 
than    over  what    may    be    expected    in  average   years." 


200  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

At  the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station,  a  min- 
iature i)ile  of  manure  exposed  for  three  weeks  showed 
a  loss  of  '.l.'Mi  per  eent  of  ammonia,  whieh  is  equal 
to   2.77   per  eent  of   nitrogen.     (Bulletin   63,  p.   113.) 

Determinations  made  of  the  leachings  from  a 
manure  pile  by  the  Massaehusetts  Experiment  Station 
showed  that  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  93  per 
eent  of  water,  the  Icachings  were  worth  $2.94  per 
ton.     (Eleventh    Annual    Report,   1893,  p.  345.) 

Sheep  manure  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station, 
1893,  sun-dried  in  the  spring  for  forty -two  days  in 
ten -pound  lots,  showed  a  loss  when  unmixed  with 
gypsum  of  38.9  per  cent,  and  when  mixed  with  gjp- 
sum  a  loss  of  20.3  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  (From 
unpul)lished  material.) 

A  field  test  of  the  value  of  housed  and  unhoused 
manures  was  made  from  1891  to  1893  in  Utah,  whieh 
showed  that  the  plats  treated  witli  hou.sed  manures 
gave  an  increase  in  grain  of  6. 04  per  eent  over 
those  treated  with  >iiihou.sed  manures.  (Utah  Ex- 
periment   Station,   Fourth   Annual    Report,   p.   160.) 

The  experiments  of  J.  R.  Schiffer  (Zeitsch.  d. 
landw.  Ver.  f.  Rheinpreussen,  1892,  pj).  43,  44),  made 
with  barnyard  manure  preserved  by  the  use  of  super- 
phosphate (gypsum,)  and  unpreserved  manure,  gave 
the  following   results: 

Potatoes,  bus.  Barley,  bus. 

Preserved  manure 247  42. 1 

Unprt'served  manure 2.T2  'M.') 

l)iff('r«'nce I.")  7.0 

P<)t;it<>('s    iHHill    whieh    the    trejited    iii;uiiire    \v;is    used 


Box   Stalls   Conserve  Jlanures.  201 

averaged  21.6  per  cent  of  starch,  and  those  where 
the  other  was  used  averaged  17.9  per  cent.  The 
author  calculates  a  net  in(!rease  from  the  use  of  pre 
served  manure  over  the  unpreserved  of  about  $8i3  per 
acre  in  the  trial  with  potatoes.  These  results  are  for 
the  first  year  after  the  application  of  the  manure. 
In  the  last  experiment,  no  a(?count  appears  to  have 
been  taken  of  the  fertilizing  material  contained  in 
the  superphosphate;  and  Avhile  the  material  used  for 
preserving  the  manure  without  doubt  conserved  the 
nitrogen,  yet  it  is  liarely  possible  that  the  increased 
yield,  due  to  the  preserved  manure,  was  the  result 
in  part  of  the  phosphate,  and  not  wholly  attributa- 
ble to  the  nitrogen  which  was  conserved. 

The  system  of  feeding  animals  in  box  stalls. 
allowing  the  manure  to  accumulate,  tends  to  conserve 
the  valuable  constituents.  An  analysis  by  Biernatzki 
shows  the  difference  between  manure  preserved  after 
this  plan  and  by  the  common  heap  method  to  be  as 
follows : 

Totaj  Phos. 

Moisture,     nitrogen,      acid.        Potash, 

percent,     per  r-ent.     percent,  percent. 

Heap  method H.l.TS  .47  .2(;,  .4.'? 

Improved  method ICt.ri-i  .07  .31  '76 

COVERED     MANURE     YARDS. 

At  many  a  farmstead  conditions  are  found  which 
at  first  glance  appear  to  have  been  brought  about 
by  a  well -laid  plan  persistently  carried  out  for  wast- 
ing mann]-»'.<.   thereby  obvi;iting   tlie  Inbor  and  expense 


202  The    Fertilifij    of  the    TAind. 

«»t'  ivniovinti:  tht'in  to  the  fields.  The  manures  are 
thrown  out  of  windows  under  the  groat  eaves  of  the 
wide-extendinj;  roof,  or  out  of  the  stable  door,  where, 
during  a  portion  or  all  of  the  rainy  months,  they 
are  leached  into  the  streams  and  the  fine  partieles 
washed  over  large  areas  or  partially  burned  b}-  self- 
generated  heat,  and  robbed  of  the  larger  portion  of 
their  potential  nitrogen.  Washed  by  the  rains,  dried 
by  the  winds,  burned  by  slow  combustion,  rooted 
over  by  swine,  punched  into  the  mud  by  the  hoofs  of 
animals,  and  scratched  into  the  fence  corners  by  the 
ever- industrious  dung- hill  fowls,  is  it  any  wonder 
that  this  mixture  of  mud,  water  and  leached  manure 
is  described  as  the  "attenuated  corpse  frf)m  which 
the  spirit  has  long  sin<'e  departed"? 

Many  barnyards  contain  not  less  than  one -fourth 
of  an  acre  (100x110  feet),  upon  which  falls  annually, 
in  central  New  York  (where  the  annual  rainfall  is 
:}2  inches).  1,812,800  pounds,  or  900  tons,  of  water. 
In  addition  to  this,  from  the  eaves  of  most  barns 
come  floods  of  water,  which  add  to  the  forces  of 
destruction  and  deterioration  already  present. 

The  following  illustrations  arc  designed  to  show 
how  easily  the  manures  from  the  stables  may  be  |)re- 
served  from  waste  until  time  and  suitable  conditions 
in  the  fields  make  it  convenient  to  remove  them. 

Fig.  36  shows  how  easily  the  unsightly  conditions 
which  are  shown  in  Chapter  VIII.  can  V)e  avoided, 
and  how  the  losses  which  oc(;ur  from  the  methods 
there  shown   may  be  prevented. 

The    larger    and   more    convenient    manure    recepta- 


204 


The    Feriiliiy    of  ihe    Land. 


cle  shown  in  Fi{j:s.  87,  38  and  .39  is  easily  and 
••lieaply  ])nilt,  and  well  adapted,  when  somewhat 
enlarged     in     breadth    and     heifjht,   to    n(»t    only    sliel- 


•^^SgjgiQSj^BBI^BS 


48  ft. 


I 


»Jl.M,»-JIJ     .,    ItJU    il.i.11   J,.l..p.mLJiL^...U.I,^-^li^.L 


Kit:. 


I'l.ni  of  ;i  1, 


u-..  shf.l. 


terin^  the  manures,  but  the  straw  stack  as  wcli.  it 
also  provides  suitable  and  sheltered  (piarters  jor 
the  animals  while  l)eing  watered,  and  a  place  in 
whieli  they  may  take  all  the  exercise  required  dnr- 
ing  the  colder  months  of  the  year  while  their 
<iuarters  are  l)eing  aired  and  cleaned.  Here,  too, 
may  the  two  extremes  of  over  and  under- exercise 
be    avoided. 

To  tnrn  milch  cows  and  calves  out  from  warm 
stables  into  the  bleak,  piercin;;  wint«'r  wind  for  even 
an  hour,  and  force  them  to  tra\"el  to  some  distant 
stream  and  drink  ice-cold  water  or  do  without,  is 
not  only  cruel  but  unprofitable.  To  offer  the  excuse 
that  animals  need  exercise,  and,  therefore,  this  is  a 
<;ood  way  of  compelling  them  to  take  it,  makes  the 
practice'  none  the  less  re]U'ehensible.  The  custom  (»f 
fastening'    :ininials    in    nnconifortnl)le   stamdiions   in    the 


Chcd/)    Coi't'i-f'd     Yar/]s. 


205 


fall,  iiiul  keeping  them  ther(>  until  .spring  on  hard 
nnbedded  or  half-bedded  floors,  without  any  ehance  to 
take  a  breath  of.  fresh  air  or  to  stretch  their  limbs, 
is  a  practice  scarcely  less  reprehensi})le  than  the  othei*. 
The  better  system  would  appear  to  lie  between  these 
two  uncomfortable  methods.  If  no  suitable  basement, 
or  open  shed  which  could  be  inclosed,  is  at  hand,  a 
larger  or  smaller  structure  than  that  shown  in  the 
figures,  built  as  a  Aving  to  the  barn  and  over  the 
great  barn  doors,  would  serve  most  admirably  in  lieu 
of    the  wastefiil  and  cruel  open  barnyard. 

The  plans  are  modeled  after  a  large  horse -barn 
l)uilt  by  the  author  some  years  since.  Such  a  struc- 
ture is  not  only  inexpensive  but  durable,  and  may  be 
made  to  conserve  the  manures  of  the  farmstead  in 
a    most     economical     wav.        The     flooi-    mav     be    of 


Fig.  38.      Frame  struct u 


iiKumro  slifd. 


pounded  clay  or  of  grout.  The  round  posts,  set  six 
feet  apart  and  about  two  feet  in  the  ground  to  give 
them  stability  while  erecting  the  structure,  are  of  any 
length    desired.     After    being    set    in    line,    much    the 


206 


77/^    l/Hiliiii    of  th>'    Land. 


same  as  shorter  fence  posts  are,  two  tiers  of  girts 
2x4  are  spiked  to  their  outer  surfaces,  and  a  2xH. 
spiked  on  top  of  the  posts,  after  tliey  have  been 
sawed  off,  serves  for  phite  (Fig.  88).  The  outer 
hoarding    is     put    on     vertically,    the     inner    boarding 


Kit.  li'.i.       FraiiK"  stnioture  of  tho  iiiiinurf  sIumI. 

horizontally,  and  th<*  si)ace  V»etw«MMi  tilled  tightly  with 
straw.  (Jood  shingles  slK>uld  Yw  used  to  cover  the 
liuilding.  t\)V  no  niattcT-  how  inexpensive  a  .«;tructure 
MUJ\  l)e,  it  is  econ(tniy  to  keep  it  <*overed  with  a 
watci'-tight  roof.  When  the  i)osts  have  become  weak- 
rut'd    bv   deca\ .    tlu'v   ni;t\    be    sawed    off    at   the  ground 


Ghristian    Farvicrs    and    (hmforf .  207 

and  Hat  foundation  stones,  font-  to  six  inches  tlii<'k 
and  eighteen  inches  square,   placHMl   under  them. 

If  the  structure  were  wider  than  that  shown,  it 
would  require  center  supporting  posts,  and  if  it  had 
two  stories,  the  ui)per  one  used  to  store  straw,  then 
the  building  should  be  tied  together  by  joists  placed 
two  feet  apart,  supported  by  a  summer  (a  timber 
under  center  of  joists)  and  by  center  posts  (Fig.  39). 
A  structure  of  this  character  Avill  l)e  much  driei- 
than  one  built  of  stone  or  even  of  double -boarded 
paper -fortified  woodeii  walls,  and  fully  as  warm  if 
the  roof  space  is  filled  with  straw,  and  far  cheaper. 

A  due  regard  for  the  coinfort  and  productive 
power  of  th<'  .uiimals,  the  fertility  of  the  land,  the 
economy  of  lal)or,  and  the  conscience  of  Christian 
farmers  makes  it  incumbent  upon  every  tiller  of  the 
soil  to  provide  comfortable  quarters  for-  all  animals, 
and  ample  and  suitable  room  for  the  storage  of  all 
farm  products  until  wanted,  including  manures  and  all 
implements  and  tools,  that  the  farm  and  its  sui-- 
roundings  may  hav(»  the  appearance  of  neatness  and 
thrift,  that  the  productive  power  of  the  land  may  be 
preserved  and  increased,  and  that  farming  ma\  ))e 
made,  as  it  deserves  to  be,  the  most  delightful  of  all 
professions. 

THE     APPLICATION     OF     .MANURES. 

In  a  coimtry  varying  so  widely  as  ours  does  in 
climate,  in  the  crops  raised,  in  markets,  and  in  the 
intelligence,    wants    and    desires    of    the    i)eople,    both 


2()H  Tin     F>',-fili(,i    nf   lh,>    hanrl. 

ui'l)!!!!  jmd  suhiirban,  i)i"acti('«'s  will  fit  tlictiisclves,  in 
tiiiH*,  into  their  surroundinj^s,  providfd  a  few  of  the 
»'c()n<)ini<'al  and  seientific  principles  of  fertility  are 
elearly  understood. 

The  ])y-i)roducts  of  the  stable  and  farm  may  Ite 
applied  to  the  land  for  one  oi-  more  of  the  follow- 
in«f  puj-poses:  as  a  winter  cover,  as  a  mulch,  to  im- 
prove physical  conditions,  to  increase  humus,  to  i)ro- 
mote  nitrification,  and  to  sui)ply  food  to  growinj: 
plants.  Mo(U'rately  rotted  manures  are  best  ai)plied 
in  late  sunnner  and  early  fall,  on  the  surface,  and  as 
soon  as  the  ground  is  plowed.  They  should  then 
l)e  incorporated  with  the  surface  soil  l)y  the  u.se  of 
the  harrow  or  cultivator,  preparator\  to  planting  to 
wheat,  rye  and  like  crops;  oi-  they  may  be  spread 
npon  the  meadows  and  pastui-cs.  This  presupposes 
that  the  manures  of  the  previous  winter  have  been 
piled  or  stored  and  partially  rotted.  Usually,  it  is 
found  advisable  to  draw  and  apply  a  part  of  the 
manur«'s  as  produced,  or  after  they  have  been  stored 
but  a  few  days  or  a  few  weeks  at  most.  In  all 
such  cases,  they  should  l)e  applied  to  tlie  land  upon 
which  plants  are  growing;  and  since  the  entire  farm 
should  l>e  covered  with  i)lants  during  the  winter,  the 
manures  may  be  applied  to  tlio.se  fields  where  the\ 
are  likely  to  produce  the  best  results.  The  practice 
of  planting  cover  crops  in  late  summer  and  fall,  in 
orchards  which  have  received  clean  culture  up  to 
the  middle  of  July,  and  after  the  oats,  nuiize  and 
other  like  crops  iiave  been  removed,  is  highly  bene- 
tieial. 


Fall    (ukI    Wiriler    Matturiny.  209 

111  some  parts  of  tlie  country  deep  snows  make  it 
inadvisable  to  practice  winter  manuring;  but  whenever 
conditions  will  permit,  early  winter  application  of 
manure  will  be  found  to  advance  the  spring  work, 
and  to  give  much  better  results  on  grass  and  maize 
lands  than  late  winter  and  spring  manuring  do.  In 
the  spring  the  fields  are  usually  soft,  and  work  is 
pressing;  if,  then,  suitable  provision  is  made  for  stor- 
ing the  by-products  of  the  stables  for  the  last  two 
or  three  months  before  the  animals  go  to  pasture, 
some  manure  will  1)e  at  hand  for  fall  distribution, 
when   the  work   of    the   farm  is   less   pressing. 

Whenever  a  systematic  rotation  can  be  carried  out, 
and  where  maize,  wheat  and  rye  thrive,  the  manures 
of  the  last  half  of  the  winter  may  be  stored  and 
applied  to  the  wheat  ground,  and  those  of  the  first 
part  of  the  winter  to  the  ground  intended  for  maize. 
Climate,  crops  and  practices  vary  so  much  that  no 
rule  can  be  laid  down  which  will  be  applica})le  to  all 
cases;  this  makes  it  necessary  for  every  farmer  to 
know  many  methods,  that  he  may  select  the  ones 
suited  to  his  conditions. 

If  manures  are  applied  freely  to  orchards,  espe- 
cially 3'oung  ones,  and  to  such  crops  as  oats  and  l)ar- 
ley,  they  may  stimulate  the  vegetative  system  of  the 
plants  at  the  expense  of  fruitfulness,  and  result  in 
positive  damage;  while  such  forage  crops  as  the  mil- 
lets, maize,  blue -grass  and  timothy,  are  seldom  in- 
jured, but  usually  benefited  by  such  applications. 
The  annual  growth  of  the  trees,  and  the  color  and 
texture  of  leaf  and  young  shoots,  seldom  fail  to  give 
o 


210  The    Fertility    of  the    iMml. 

unmistakable  signs  of  the  presence  of  too  much  or 
too  little  nitrogen. 

Manures  are  frequently  wasted  by  being  applied 
too  liberally.  It  is  not  economical,  except  for  special 
crops  under  special  conditions,  to  apj)ly  from  20  to 
40  two-horse  loads  or  tons  per  acre  at  one  time. 
The  following  is  a  brief  extract  from  a  letter  received 
not   long  since: 

"I  liave  an  acre  of  heavy  soil  maiun-ed  with  100 
two-hoi*se  loads  of  barnyard  manure  from  horses, 
cows  and  hogs.  It  was  plowed  under,  the  ground 
fined,  and  another  hundred  loads  applied,  and  the 
ground  fined  deeper  than  before.  Then  7")  ])ushels 
of  slaked  lime  were  harrowed  in.  The  land  was 
planted  to  potatoes."  Later,  the  same  correspondent 
writes:  ''The  season  was  very  dry.  and  I  secured  but 
225  bushels  of  potatoes  on   the  acre." 

Supposing,  now,  that  each  load  weighed  one  ton. 
and  that  the  manure  was  of  faii-ly  good  (juality, 
that  is,  .6  i)er  cent  nitrogen,  .'\  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid  and  .4;!  per  cent  potash,  it  would  have  con- 
tained the  following  (juantities  of  potential  plant- 
food: 

4(K)  bus.  i><)tatoes  .">  tons  of  inaniire 

exclusive  of  vines    '^.t  luis.  potatoes     woultl  furnisli 
require  require  jKitentiallj 

Nitrogen...   240  n.s.      .■>()  lbs.  28.1  lbs.  00  lbs. 

Pbos.  acid.   120      •        17    •■  9.5    "  M    " 

Potasb 180     ••         70    ••  39.3    "  4.'>    •• 

What  percentage  of  the  potential  nourishment 
contained  in  the  manures  plants  can  secure  is  not 
known,  and    it    is    unsafe    to   even    assume   any   given 


Wa.sff'   of  Mannrefi. 


211 


quantity,  though  some  writers  have  tliought  it  prob- 
able that  under  good  conditions  one -half  might  be 
recovered  the  first  year.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the 
tables    show    conclusively    that    the    amounts    of  the 


nj- 


Fig.  ;i5.     Brush   manure-spreader. 


three  valued  elements  supplied  by  the  liberal  ma- 
nuring were  so  much  in  excess  of  the  wants  of  the 
plants   as   to   have   been   wasteful. 

Liberal  applications  of  coarse  manures  in  the 
winter  on  clayey  lands,  especially  those  covered  with 
grass,  tend  to  keep  them  wet  and   cold   until  late  in 


212  77* r    FeriiWii    of  tin     Land. 

the  spring,  whi(!li  is  seriously  detrimental  if  the  land 
is  intended  for  maize,  oats  or  barley.  Nor  are 
<roai*se,  unrotted  manures  suitable  for  sandy  land, 
unless  the  chief  objeet  is  to  form  nnileh  or  winter 
eoverin^if  for  the  soil. 

Unrotted  manures,  when  spi-ead  fr(>m  the  wagon 
or  sleigh  in  the  winter,  are  not  likely  to  be  dis- 
tributed evenly,  and  therefore  some  attention  should 
l)e  paid  to  redistributing  them  in  the  spring,  before 
they  become  dry.  On  grass  land  this  work  may 
be  done  rapidly  and  well  by  means  of  a  simple  tool 
shown  in  the  accompanying  cut  (Fig.  ^M,  page  211). 
It  may  also  be  used  to  advantage  on  pastures, 
in  the  spring,  to  distribute  the  previous  year's  drop- 
pings of  the  animals  which,  if  left  undisturbed, 
cause  rank  bunches  of  grass,  which  are  refused  ])y 
the  gi'azing  animals.  The  imi)lement  is  made  of 
an  oak  plank  one  foot  wide,  jjierced  with  suitable 
two- inch    holes,   into  which     is  fastened    heavy    l)rush. 

Manures  should  be  fairly  well  rotted  l)efore  being 
applied  to  sandy  soils,  or  they  increase  the  porosity 
of  the  land.  Liberal  applications  of  coarse,  dryish 
manures  plowed  under  nuiy.  if  th<'  weather  is  dry 
and  remains  so,  do  serious  temi)orary  damage.  The 
more  evenly  manures  are  distributed  the  more  effi- 
ciently they  will  act.  but  it  requires  no  little  skill 
and  laboi-  to  perform  the  work  in  the  best  nninner 
by  hand.  Two -horse  nuinui-e- spreaders  handle  many 
kiiuls  of  manure  iji  a  most  satisfactory  manner 
under  favorable  conditions,  but  the  conditions  are  so 
often    unfavorable    that    thev    are    not     likelv    to   come 


Principles   of  Manuring.  213 

into  universal  use.  That  the  reader  may  not  be  dis- 
tracted by  the  details  of  this  subject,  some  of  which 
must  fail  to  meet  his  case,  a  few  general  though 
not  universal  rules,  expressed  in  a  few  words,  are 
given,  the  substance  of  some  of  which  have  already 
been  stated. 

Distribute  manures  in  fall  and  early  winter, 
tliinly  and  evenly  on  or  near  the  surface  where 
plants  arc  grooving  or  will  soon  appear.  Light  and 
h-equent  applications  are  better  than  infrequent,  lib- 
eral ones.  A  moderate  increased  production  of  many 
fields  from  year  to  year  is  better  than  a  great  in- 
crease on  a  single  field  for  a  few  years.  Barn 
manures  are  most  economically  used  if  associated 
with  cover  and  green  crops,  improved  tillage,  and 
in  many  cases  in  conjunction  with  light  applications 
of  lime,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  in  some 
cases  with   nitrogen,  salt  and  gypsum. 


CHAPTER  X. 

NITROdEN  AM*    MTRIFICATION. 

If  a  field  of  wheat,  Imrlcy  or  maize  is  inspected 
before  it  approaches  maturity,  and  especially  when  the 
plants  are  but  a  few  inches  high,  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  folia^je  in  some  jwrtions  of  the  field  is  not 
only  more  luxuriant,  but  of  a  much  darker  green 
than  that  in  other  ])ortions.  These  dark  green  places 
may  be  grouped  together  in  small  areas  not  larger 
than  a  foot  in  diameter,  or  they  nniy  occupy  large 
areas,  and  in  some  cases  the  entire  field  may  have 
a  dark  color.  This  denotes  that  the  plants  are 
abundantly  supplied  with  nitrogen,  and  have  at  least 
a  moderate  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

When  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  has  been 
made  superior  l)y  tillage,  and  suitable  moisture  is 
present,  the  ])lants  are,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
able  to  secure  sufficient  nitrogen  for  nonnal  growth, 
although  the  soil  may  carry  comparatively  little  nitro- 
gen or  nitrogenous  compounds.  Plants  may  suffer 
for  want  of  nitrogen,  although  there  is  aii-abundancc 
of  it,  in  a  potential  form,  in  the  soil.  It  is  only 
in  rare  cases  that  the  land  does  not  contain  enough 
p«»tcnti!il  nitrogen  which  could  be  made  available 
])r(»litalily    by   intensilicd    tillage,  and    roost    productive 

l-H) 


How   to  Treat  Light   Soils.  215 

soils  carry  poteutial  nitrogen  sufficient  for  from  fifty 
to  two  hundred  average  (.'rops  of  the  cereals. 

The  first  effort  should  be  to  determine  whether 
it  is  best  to  hasten  nitrification  by  extra  tillage  and 
aeration,  or  if  it  is  more  desirable  to  withliold  the 
extra  tillage  and  add  purchased  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds. On  light  soils,  tillage  may  be  carried  so  far 
as  to  deplete  the  land  of  its  humus,  and  lessen  its 
moisture-holding  capacity.  Extra  tillage  presupposes 
that  suitable  mea.sures  will  be  taken  to  supply  the 
soil  with  organic  material  by  means  of  manures  or 
plants,  sufficient  to  keep  the  soil  filled  with  humus  and 
in  a  congenial  physical  condition.  In  some  cases,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  depend  in  part  on  purchased 
nitrogen,  rather  than  to  call  upon  the  land  for  the 
entire  supply  needed,  as  in  the  lattei-  case  what  is 
gained  by  extra  tillage  may  be  offset  l)y  the  depletion 
of  soil  humus.  Just  how  much  reserve  potential  nitro- 
gen should  be  carried,  and  how  much  humus,  and 
how  much  should  be  brought  from  outside  sources, 
can  be  determined  only  by  the  most  careful  experi- 
mentation and  observation. 

In  promoting  nitrification  by  tillage,  the  mineral 
<-onstituents  of  the  soil  are  also  rendered  more  avail- 
able. Here,  again,  is  met  the  business  or  financial 
side  of  this  problem;  but  it  may  be  said  that  all 
plants  are  so  markedly  benefited  by  superior  soil  con- 
ditions that  excellent  physical  conditions  should  be 
secured,  even  if  the  oxidation  of  tlie  humus  is  car- 
ried farther  than  is  desirable.  Under  ordinary  eon- 
(litions.  tenacious    soils   are    seldom    seriously  depletefl 


216  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

of  their  organic  material  by  extra  tillage,  but  when 
one  crop  follows  another  without  any  hunuis-pro- 
(lucing  crop  intervening,  especially  in  warm  climates, 
meager  production  may  be  due  quite  as  nnich  to 
the  lack  of  humus  as  to  lack  of  available  plant- 
food. 

Whenever  the  physical  condition  of  the  land  is 
superior,  less  potential  plant -food  in  the  soil  is  re- 
quired for  a  given  result  than  when  the  physical 
conditions  are  bad.  How  much  may  be  taken  out 
and  how  much  reserve  nuist  be  left  in  the  soil, 
and  jet  maintain,  and  even  increase,  the  most  profit- 
able production  of  the  farm,  is*  the  problem  which 
constantly  recurs  to  the  man  who  would  secure  the 
most  satisfactory  results,  all  things  considered.  This 
problem  is  followed  by  others, — how  best  to  make 
the  elements  of  the  soil  available,  and  how  best  to 
maintain  the  necessary  reserve.  It  will  be  seen 
how  complex  agriculture  becomes  when  an  attempt 
is  made  to  change  nitrogenous  compounds  in  the 
soil  into  available  nitrogen  with  the  view  of  re- 
moving it  from  the  land,  although  at  first  we  take 
no  account  of  the  chemical  and  biological  changes 
which  are  constantly  going  on.  and  consider  the 
question  only  from  the  farmer's  standpoint. 

The  soil  must  contain,  in  addition  to  the  neces- 
sary mineral  constituents  of  plants,  a  suitable  supply 
of  available  nitrogen,  or  the  plants  cannot  make  the 
necessary  growth  requisite  for  abundant  fruitage. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  vegetative  system  of  the 
plant   is  ov^^rfed   by  an  excessive  amount   of    nitrogen. 


Over -feeding    Plants.  217 

fruitage  is  reduced,  and  the  plants  are  likely  to  be 
attacked  by  many  enemies,  siuih  as  rust  and  mildew, 
which  they  might  in  part  or  entirely  resist  if  a  less 
or  normal  amount  of   available  nitrogen  were  present. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  an  abundant 
supply  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  especially  the 
former,  tends  to  increase  fruitfulness,  hardiness  and 
firmness  of  leaves  and  stems,  while  an  a])undance 
of  nitrogen  has  a  tendency  to  produ(^e  just  the  re- 
verse conditions;  and  while  the  plant  cannot  be  at 
its  best  without  a  suitable  supply  of  nitrogen,  the 
plants  which  are  grown  chiefly  for  their  fruits  may 
be  easily  injured  by  an  amount  only  slightlj-  exceed- 
ing a  sufficiency. 

At  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  in  recent  ex- 
periments with  wheat  sown  in  drills  twenty -four 
inches  apart  and  given  frequent  tillage,  the  blades, 
stems  and  heads  all  showed  that  the  plants  were 
using  an  excess  of  nitrogen,  which  was  made  avail- 
able to  them  by  superior  tillage  and  thin  seeding. 
The  wide  intervals  between  the  drills  allowed  the 
plants  three  times  the  feeding  ground  usually  given. 
The  period  of  maturing  the  grain  was  prolonged  a 
full  week,  and  the  rust  was  far  more  abundant 
than  on  the  leaves  of  plants  growing  in  adjoining 
plats  which  had  been  drilled  and  treated  in  the 
usual  manner.  These  observations  were  made  on 
land  of  moderate  fertility,  from  which  one  crop  of 
maize  and  two  of  wheat  had  been  taken  in  the 
previous  three  years,  no  fertilizers  having  been  used 
on  any  of  them. 


218  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

When  some  crops,  which  arc  valued  chiefly  for 
their  leaves  and  stems,  are  considered,  there  may  1>»' 
no  danger  from  an  abundant  supply  of  available 
nitrogen,  though  it  may  be  said  that  the  quality  of 
forage  crops  which  have  been  highly  stimulated  by  a 
superabundance  of  nitrogen  is  not  as  good  as  that 
of  forage  grown  on  land  supplied  with  a  less  amount 
of  nitrogen  and  a  full  or  even  liberal  supply  of  phos- 
phoric acid. 

What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  crops  raised 
for  fruit  or  for  forage  chiefly,  does  not  always  hold 
good  when  applied  to  the  cultivation  of  maize,  since 
this  plant  is  not  only  able  to  grow  on  coarse  and 
partially  decayed  farm  manures  without  injury,  but 
is  l)enefited  far  more  by  added  nitrogen  than  most 
plants  are.  The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  fruit 
and  stalk  of  maize,  if  not  ])lanted  too  thickly,  and  if 
given  suitable  inter-tillage,  ajipear  to  be  benefited  by 
not  only  an  abundance  of  mineral  plant-food,  but  of 
nitrogen  as  well. 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  discussion  or  investigation 
of  the  subject  of  nitrogen  and  nitrification  would  be 
of  little  value  unless  the  physical  conditions  of  the 
soil  and  the  available  moisture  which  it  contains  are 
also  considered.  Xo  matter  how  fully  and  cheaply 
the  soil  may  be  supplied  with  nitrogen  and  nitrog- 
enous compounds,  if  it  does  not  furnish  a  comfort- 
able home  for  the  plant,  or  if,  for  considerable 
periods,  there  is  not  enough  moisture  present  to 
transport  the  plant -food  into  the  plants,  little  benefit 
may  be   e.\|»t'cte(l    fn)ni  the   real   or   potential   nourish- 


Inter-tillage    Essential.  219 

ment  carried  in  the  laud.  Plants  suffer  oftener  from 
lack  of  moisture  than  from  lack  of  food. 

To  illustrate,  the  following  results  of  investigations 
conducted  in  1895-99  with  potatoes  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity Experiment  Station  are  given.  The  land  se- 
lected for  the  experiment  was  a  gravelly  soil  underlaid 
by  a  porous  subsoil  through  which  the  water  readily 
passed.  For  twenty  years  preceding  the  experiment, 
a  four-year  rotation  had  been  adopted, —  clover  or 
clover  and  timoth}^  one  year,  mowe'd  and  pastured  or 
mowed  twice,  lightly  manured  in  the  fall  or  early 
winter ;  maize  one  year ;  oats  or  barley  without  ma- 
nure or  other  fertilizer  one  year  ;  followed  by  winter 
wheat  one  year. 

In  1893  a  crop  of  clover  was  removed,  and  in  1894 
a  crop  of  maize  was  removed,  after  which  the  land 
was  carefully  divided  into  plats  of  one -twentieth  of 
an  acre  each.  Late  in  the  fall  of  1894  the  land  was 
plowed  deeply,  and  about  May  1,  1895,  all  plats  were 
gang -plowed  and  thoroughly  harrowed.  May  3  and 
4  potatoes  were  planted  upon  eight  plats.  The 
average  yield  from  the  eight  plats  was  353  bushels  of 
potatoes  per  acre,  or  more  than  five  times  the  average 
yield  of  potatoes  in  New  York*  (68.8  bushels).  In 
'1896  the  potato  experiments  were  conducted  upon  plats 
adjoining  and  similar  in  character,  though  rather 
poorer,  from  which  two  crops  of  corn  had  been  taken, 
one  in  1894  and  another  in  1895.  The  potatoes  were 
planted  May  9,   1896,  four   plats  (7,  8,  9    and    10)   to 

*  A<-conling  to  the  Eleventh  Census  of  the  Tuited  States.  18!tO, 


220  The    Fertility   of  the    Ixind. 

Rural  New-Yorker  No.  2,  aud  two  plats  (11  and  12)  i<» 
Diittoii  Plat  7  received  fertilizer  at  the  rate  per  aert* 
of  200  pounds  muriate  of  potash  and  300  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate,  while  plat  8  received  no  fertilizer. 
Moth  plats  were  inter- tilled  seven  times,  plat  7  yield- 
ing 310.5  bushels,  and  plat  8,  350.3  bushels  per  acre. 
Plat  9  was  inter- tilled  eleven  times,  and  plat  12  seven 
times.  They  yielded  respectively  338.1  bushels  and 
341.G  bushels  per  acre.  Plats  10  and  11  were  each 
inter- tilled  three  times.  The  former  gave  a  yield  of 
280  bushels,  and  the  latter  299.69  bushels  per  acre  ; 
or  the  two  plats  (9  and  12),  with  frequent  tillage,  gave 
an  average  yield  of  339.85  bushels  per  acre,  while  the 
two  plats  (10  and  11),  with  infrequent  tillage,  gave  an 
average  of  289.83  bushels* per  acre. 

In  1897  ten  plats  were  devoted  to  experiments  with 
potatoes.  Of  these  ten  plats,  two  (34  and  35)  were 
inter -tilled  eight  times,  and  gave  an  average  yield  of 
370  bushels  per  acre.  Two  plats  (41  and  42)  were 
iiiter-tilled  seven  times,  and  gave  an  average  yield  of 
333  bushels  per  acre.  Six  plats  (36,  37,  38,  39,  40  and 
43)  were  inter-tilled  five  times,  and  yielded  an  average 
of  302  bushels  per  acre.  The  soil  on  these  various 
plats  was  rather  better  on  the  plats  which  received  the 
five  cultures  than  on  tlie  plats  which  were  cultivated 
eight  times.  All  i)lats  on  which  the  above  experi- 
ments were  conducted  in  1897  were  plowed  April  2 
and  3,  and  thoroughly  harrowed.  In  preparation 
and  planting  all  plats  were  treated  alike,  and  the 
widely  varying  results  can  only  be  ascribed  to  the 
better  conditions  provided  by  superior  inter- tillage. 


h\rf)i'tiiiii'tils    iritli    Potatoes.  221 

111  1898  tillage  experiments  with  potatoes  were 
(conducted  upon  eleven  plats,  six  of  which  received 
inter -tillage  six  times  and  five  of  which  were  inter- 
tilled three  times.  The  average  yield  per  acre  from  the 
six  plats  (21,  22,  26,  29,  80  and  32).  which  received 
six  cultures,  was  284.2  bushels  per  acre.  The  average 
from  five  plats  (23,  24,  25,  27  and  28),  which  were 
cultivated  three  times,  was  302  bushels  per  acre. 
While  the  increased  tillage  does  not  show  the  marked 
results  upon  the  plats  this  year  as  in  former  years, 
the  average  of  all  plats  is  still  well  above  the  average 
3'ield  for  the  state.  A  severe  drought,  preceded  ami 
followed  by  excessive  rains,  no  doubt  (•onsideral)ly 
reduced  the  yield.  The  plats  which  received  thro- 
cultures  were  upon  rather  better  soil  than  were  tiu- 
plats  receiving  six  cultures.  At  one  time  during 
growth  the  moisture  contained  in  the  surface  six 
inches  of  soil  was  reduced  to  4  i)er  cent.  It  is  prob- 
able that  where  three  cultures  were  given  all  the 
plant-food  was  liberated  that  could  be  bnMight  into 
solution  by  the  moisture  present. 

The  most  important  lesson  taught  by  this  series  of 
experiments  is  not  the  comparative  yield  of  one  plat 
with  another,  but  the  uniformly  high  j-ield  from  all 
plats.  When  it  is  considered  that  no  fertilizer  has 
been  applied,  except  in  one  ease,  and  that  the  land 
has  been  heavily  cropped  year  after  year,  the  impor- 
tance of  thorough  preparation  for  the  crop  is  empha- 
sized. All  the  plats  were  deeply  plowed  from  two  to 
three  times  each  3'ear,  and  given  the  most  thorough 
preparation   before   planting.      Plowing  was   done   earU 


222  Till     Fn-filHij   of  th,'    Ltnnl. 

in  the  spring  before  the  stores  of  soil  moisture  had 
be(!onie  disseminated  by  evaporation,  the  rainfall  was 
quiekly  absorbed,  and  the  inter-tillage  kept  the  sur- 
face mulch  renewed,  and  thus  largely  prevented  loss 
l)y  evaporation,  and  the  plant -food  which  was  made 
.iviiilable  was  brought  into  solution  aiul  thus  rendered 
<»t'  use  to  the  growing  plants.  For  detailed  report 
and  summarized  tables,  see  Bulletin  I.IG,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity Agricultural  Exi)erimeut  Station,  December, 
1898,  Third  Report  on  Potato  Culture. 

Other  equally  striking  experiments  could  be  cited 
to  show  the  nuirked  effect  produced  by  frequent  and 
superior  tillage  in  securing  available  nitrogen  and  in 
conserving  moisture,  but  those  given  will  suflRee  to 
call  attention  to  the  means  which  nuiy  be  success- 
fully used  to  furnish  nitrogen  and  other  necessary 
plant-food,  and  moisture,  continuiuisly  to  the  grow- 
ing plant.  True,  frecpient  inter-tillage  benefits  pota- 
toes more  than  most  other  plants,  since  the  earth- 
mulch,  in  addition  to  the  beneficial  effects  already 
noted,  serves  to  keep  the  soil  cool,  a  condition  whicli 
is  highly  beneficial  to  the  potato  in  most  localities. 
This  earth -mulch  was  kept  up  until  late  in  the  sea- 
son, and  seemed  to  be  quite  as  beneficial  in  the 
late  as  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  although 
it  was  not  so  perfect,  since  the  cultivators  had  to 
be  narrowed  up,  that  the  partly  grown  tubers  might 
not  be  disturbed. 

Prom  these  and  other  similar  experiments,  we  are 
irresistibly    led    to    the    conclusion    that    the    meager 


Storer   on    Xitn_fi<uttion.  223 

crops  so  universally  secured  are  usually  not  due  so 
much  to  a  lack  of  rainfall  and  potential  nitrogen 
and  other  elements  of  plant  growth  in  the  soil,  as 
to  lack  of  ability  or  knowledge  to  make  them 
available.  Here,  again,  we  arrive  at  the  point  where 
a  choice  must  be  made  between  utilizing  the  plant- 
food  and  moisture  already  in  the  soil,  or  securing 
the  one  by  purchase  and  the  other  by  expensive 
irrigation. 

The  discussion  of  the  subject  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  observant  farmer,  who  would  utilize  in 
the  best  manner  possible  the  latent  wealth  of  the 
soil,  naturally  prepares  the  way  for  considering  the 
])lant's  need  of  nitrogen,  and  the  best  means  to  se- 
cure the  highest  results  by  the  utilization  of  the 
complex  forces  which,  if  understood,  may  materially 
assist  in  making  a  wise  use  of  the  land,  while 
leaving  it  unimpaired  for  future  generations. 

The  foregoing  investigations  show  the  need  of 
testing  the  soil  to  determine  if  it  will  respond 
.juickly  and  profitably  to  superior  tillage,  or  if  it 
may  be  necessary  to  add  nitrogenous  compounds,  or 
to  hasten  nitrification  by  the  application  of  lime,  or 
by  other  means  besides  tillage.  They  also  serve  to 
emphasize  the  full  meaning  of  the  word  manure, 
which  is  derived  from  the  French  word  manoeuvrer , — 
"to  work  by  hand."  Manoeuvrer  might  be  translated 
into  modern  thought  by  the  single  word  tillage. 

The  need  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  is  succinctly 
set    forth    by    Storer:^    ''Long- continued     ol)servation 

♦Agriculture,  I.  292,  313. 


224  Tl»     FfrtilHy    of  thf    Umd. 

and  many  experiments  liave  proved  that,  beside  tlir 
inorganic  or  ash  ingredients  of  phmts,  there  mnst 
always  be  some  source  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  in 
order  that  a  crop  may  attain  any  considerable  de- 
velopment. The  growth  of  forests  and  of  all  wild 
plants  is  really  no  exception  to  the  rule.  It  is 
certain  that  there  must  be  nitrogen  in  some  shape 
in  the  soil,  if  there  is  to  be  abundant  vegetation, 
and  it  is  precisely  in  the  ease  of  wild  plants  that 
the  intluence  of  nitrates  is  on  the  whole  most 
strongly  nuirked.  The  nitrates,  like  other  easily  as- 
similable nitrogenized  compounds,  promote  to  u 
marked  degree  the  growth  of  the  leafy  part  of  the 
plant,  and  the  leaves  of  plants  thus  fed  an'  char- 
acterized by  a  peculiarly  intense  green  color." 

"Hut  let  him  [the  farmer]  do  his  best,  he  can 
never  accunuilate  a  very  large  i)r()portion  of  nitrates 
in  his  field,  for  the  soil  has  little  or  no  powei- 
permanently  to  retain  these  substances.  Every  rain- 
fall dissolves  the  nitrates  which  have  formed  in  the 
upper  layers  of  the  soil,  and  carries  them  down 
into  or  towards  the  lower  layers,  and  in  case  the 
rain  should  happen  to  \w  abundant  and  long-con- 
tinued it  may  even  wash  the  nitrates  utterly  out  of 
the  soil.  The  double  silicates,  which  serve  so  well 
to  arrest  potash  and  ammonia,  have  no  jiower  to 
stop  the  waste  of  nitric  acid." 

One  manurial  ingredient  can  hardly  be  said  to  be 
of  more  importance  than  another,  but  one  may  as- 
sume more  importance  than  another  because  of  the 
greater  expense  or  difficulty  in  securing  it,  or  becau.se 


Constituents   of  Plants    Variable.  225 

a  slightly  insufficient  supply  may  more  seriously 
affect  production  than  when  some  other  ingredient  is 
insufficiently  supplied  to  the  same  extent. 

As  has  been  previously  stated,  plants,  like  ani- 
mals, tend  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  placed,  and  so  long  as  these  condi- 
tions do  not  depart  too  widely  from  the  normal. 
little  or  no  harm  occurs.  A  variety  of  wheat  not 
infrequently  gives  virtually  the  same  yield  per  acre 
when  raised  on  soils  widely  different  as  to  their  char- 
acter and  composition.  Of  two  plats  of  grain  of  the 
same  variety,  one  may  give  much  more  straw  than 
the  other  while  the  yield  of  grain  is  virtually  alike, 
and  the  question  is  raised,  had  one  too  little  nitro- 
gen,   or   had    one  too   much  ? 

If  the  grains  grown  from  various  plats,  differ- 
ently fertilized,  and  which  give  virtually  the  same 
yield,  be  analyzed,  it  will  be  found  that  they  differ 
materially  as  to  the  proportion  of  their  constituents. 
It  would,  then,  appear  that  a  knowledge  of  the  com- 
position of  the  soil  and  plant  does  not  solve  the 
difficult  problem  of  feeding  plants,  though  such 
knowledge  is  likely  to  be  of  great  advantage.  Here, 
again,  we  are  sent  to  the  field  with  a  long  list  of 
questions  which  can  only  be  answered,  if  at  all,  in 
the  presence  of  the  growing  plant.  It  must  be  fully 
realized,  too,  that  the  learner  is  in  the  presence, 
not  of  one  force,  but  of  many,  which  may  act  and 
react  upon  each  other  in  complex  and  mysterious 
ways.  An  organized,  living  thing  is  to  be  studied, 
a    flexible    plant,    subject,    within    certain    limits,    to 


226  Tfif    FertnUy    of  f/„     Laixl. 

marked  variations,  in  a  siuple  generation,  and  which 
may  be  increased  and  in  time  become  fixed. 

One  legnniinous  crop  in  a  fonr  or  five-year  rota- 
tion, conplcd  with  nitrogen- producinjj  cover  crops, 
can  be  made  to  fnrnish  nearly  all  the  nitrogen 
needed  by  the  other  crops  in  the  rotation.  Add  to 
this  the  nitrogen  <M)ntained  in  the  excrements  of  domes- 
tic aniimds,  that  stored  in  the  soil,  antl  that  V)ronght 
to  the  land  from  natural  sources,  and  the  supply 
from  these  sources  may  be  made  cipial  to  the  de- 
mand, except   for   a   few  special   croj>s. 

Long  experience  in  the  numagenient  and  tillage 
of  widely  sej^arated  farms,  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  undei-  wise  management  a  full  supply  of  nitro- 
gen for  the  ordinary  fruits  and  giains.  for  lands 
whicli  are  now  fairly  productive,  '-an  Ite  supplied 
from  home  resources  in  the  gi-eater  part  of  the 
United  States.  Wherever  land  is  reasonably  cheap 
and  the  legum«'s  flourish,  and  the  climate  is  adai)ted 
to  the  rearing  of  domestic  animals,  the  farmer  is 
unwise  who  i)urcha.ses  nitrogen  at  from  12  to  20  cents 
per  pound,  instead  of  securing  it  from  inexpensive 
home  resources. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  make  ))rovision  for  keeping 
the  soil  fully  supplied  with  potential  nitrogen  and 
humus,  as  the  aid  of  a  large  variety  of  plants 
suited  to  varied  condition  can  be  secured  in  most 
localities.  Some  can  witlistand  the  severest  winter: 
others  are  able  to  flourish  in  hot  and  even  semi- 
arid  districts,  and  may  be  used  in  part  or  wholly 
as    humus    aud    nitrogen    producei-s.      As    soon  as  one 


Plant,   AvuHol,   and    Soil.  227 

(•last;  of  plants  has  fruited,  and  even  before,  other 
plants  may  be  started,  thereby  keeping  the  land  con- 
stantly employed  in  furnishing,  through  the  plant, 
the  desired  nitrogenous  compounds  and  humus.  Add 
to  these  sources  the  farm  manures,  and  the  ques- 
tion of  a  supply  of  nitrogen  is  usually  solved,  pro- 
\ided,  always,  that  skill  is  used  in  conserving  it  and 
\u  making  it  available.  It  is  one  thing  to  have 
the  means  at  hand  for  securing  a  full  supply  of 
nitrogen,  and  (juite  another  to  know  how  to  wisely 
nse  them:  or,  in  other  words,  how  most  wisely  to 
make  use  of  plant,  animal  and  soil  to  secure  this 
high-priced  and  necessary  element. 

Plants  are  unable  to  live  on  the  product  of  pre- 
ceding plants  until  the  organized  matter  of  the.se 
l)reccding  plants  has  been  broken  d<^wn  and  re- 
solved into  original  compounds.  Scientific  farming 
may  be  said  to  consist  in  part  in  filling  the  soil 
with  cheap  and  refuse  potential  plant -food,  and  in 
taking  it  out  of  the  soil  as  finished  jn-oducts  so 
skilfully  that  the  supply  is  kept  equal  to  the  de- 
mand, and  this  with  profit  to  the  farmer  and  ben- 
efit to  the  land.  It  is  one  thing  to  put  potential 
plant -food  into  the  soil,  and  quite  another  to  get 
it  out  jn-ofitably.  There  are  various  means  used  to 
secure  the  desired  results,  amongst  which  tillage  has 
been  already  mentioned,  but  dependence  should  not 
be  placed  on  this  alone. 

The  relation  of  lime  to  nitrification  demands  a 
word  at  this  point.  While  lime  has  been  used  to 
some  extent  for   many  centuries  to   furnish   plant -food 


228  The    FertilHy    of  the    lAind. 

indirectly,  and  while  many  investigations  have  been 
eonducted  to  discover  the  complex  action  of  lime 
when  applied  to  the  land,  and  while  something  is 
positively  known  as  to  its  action,  so  many  contradic- 
tory results  are  reached  that  the  farmer  is  impelled 
to  test  its  action  not  only  on  his  own  farm,  but  on 
every  field  of  it,  in  order  to  arrive  at  facts  which 
are  applicable  to  his  own  conditions;  and  this  is  not 
strange,  for  the  soil  is  not  one  uniform  mass,  but  is 
naturally  extremely  variable.  Most  of  the  earthy 
parts  of  the  soil  have  been  transported  long  distances 
by  the  action  of  ice  and  water,  sifted,  sorted  and  de- 
posited under  such  a  multitude  of  conditions  as  to 
preclude  the  possibility,  in  many  cases,  of  its  being 
similar,  much  less  alike,  over  a  single  field  of  a  few 
acres.  Not  infrequently  a  single  acre  contains  soils 
which  may  be  classified  under  three  or  four  entirely 
distinct    heads. 

But,  as  has  been  said,  some  of  the  effects  pro- 
duced by  liming  land  are  well  established.  When 
mild  lime  is  applied  in  moderate  quantities  it 
tends  to  promote  nitrification,  and  to  make  avail- 
able the  dormant  plant -food.  It  may  promote  nitri- 
fication by  improving  the  physical  character  of  the 
soil,  thereby  making  it  more  comfortable  for  the 
micro-organisms,  or  it  may  correct  the  acidit>'  of 
the  land,  thereby  promoting  the  multiplication  of 
these  organisms,  or  it  may  serve  to  supply  a  mineral 
element  necessary  to  their  well  being,  or  it  may, 
through  its  varied  actions,  arrest  the  development 
of    denitrifying    organisms.     Neither    the    farmer    nor 


Nitrification   Haatened   hy    Lime.  229 

the  biologist  can  tell,  usually,  whether  only  one  or 
all  of  these  beneficial  effects  have  been  produced, 
but  they  may  know  that  benefits  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  have  or  have  not  been  received,  by  observing 
the  plant  and  its  fruit. 

While  a  moderate  application  of  lime  usually 
promotes  nitrification,  a  too  liberal  application  may 
retard  it.  Aikman*  states  the  case  clearly  when  he 
says:  "The  action  of  lime  on  nitrogenous  organic 
matter  is  of  a  very  striking  kind,  and  is  by  no 
means  very  clearly  understood.  As  we  have  pointed 
out,  it  sometimes  acts  as  an  antiseptic  or  preserva- 
tive; and  this  antiseptic  or  preservative  action  has 
been  explained  on  the  assumption  that  insoluble 
albuminates  of  lime  are  formed.  Its  action  in  such 
industries  as  calico  printing,  where  it  has  been  used 
along  with  casein  for  fixing  coloring  matter;  or,  in 
sugar  refining,  where  it  is  used  for  clarifjing  the 
sugar  by  precipitating  the  albuminous  matter  in 
solution  in  the  saccharine  liquor;  or,  lastly,  in  puri- 
fying sewage, —  has  been  cited  in  support  of  this 
theory.  While,  however,  there  may  be  circumstances 
in  which  lime,  especially  in  its  caustic  form,  acts  as 
an  antiseptic,  its  general  tendency  is  to  promote 
these  fermentative  changes,  such  as  nitrification,  so 
important  to  plant -life." 

Gypsum  is  known  to  have  the  power  of  fixing 
ammonia  (which  is  one  part  nitrogen  and  three 
parts  hydrogen),  and  to  hasten  nitrification,  and  may 
be   used    in    many  cases    to    great   advantage    in    both 

*  Manures  and  Manuring,  440. 


230  The    FeHilittf    of  the    lAtnd. 

stablo  and  lit-ld.  The  gypsum  is  sold  without  a 
guaranteed  analysis,  and  too  frequently  it  is  little, 
if  any,  better  than  fine,  dry,  rich  earth  as  an 
ammonia -fixer  or  a  promoter  of  nitrifi(;ation.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  i)art  of  wisdom  to  purchase  sparingly 
until  the  jiurity  and  fineness  of  the  product  is 
known,  or  until  tliere  is  certain  knowledge  that  the 
benefits  derived  from  the  use  of  gypsum  exceed  in 
value  its  cost. 

Nitrification  is  promoted  either  Ity  long  <»r  short 
fallows  conducted  during  the  wainner  months,  but 
if  a  supei-al)undance  of  rain  falls  u|)ou  the  land 
before  growing  plants  have  made  use  of  the  nitro- 
gen rendei-ed  available  by  tillage,  serious  loss  nuiy 
OCCUI-.  This  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  fallow 
lands,  and  those  which  have  received  fre(|uent  tillage 
while  i)roducing  a  summer  inter- tilled  <*rop.  .should 
be  fully  occupied  by  plants  l)efore  the  fall  or  winter 
rains  occur.  Moderate  rains  nmy  serve  to  carry  the 
availal)l«'  nitrogen  downward.  ])ut  it  tends  to  rise  to 
or  near  the  surface  as  soon  as  capillary  action  is  re- 
stored. But  if  the  water  leaches  through  or  pas.<;es 
off  the  land  rich  in  solul)le  nitrogenous  compounds, 
serious    loss  may  occur. 

While  fewer  nitrogen- pi-oducing  i)lants  are  rais«'(l 
in  the  south  than  in  the  north,  nitrification  is  far 
more  active  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern 
states.  The.se  conditions  indicate  that  the  northern 
farmer  should  lay  stress  on  hastening  nitrification 
by  increasing  the  temperattii'c  of  the  soil  by  drainage 
and    tillage,    while    the    .southern    farmer    should    cover 


Clovers    Fix   Nitrogen.  231 

all  his  cultivated  land  with  leguminous  plants  after 
the  regular  crops  have  been  laid  ])y  or  removed. 

Since  crimson  clover  is  found  to  thrive  all  through 
the  southern  country,  it  would  seem  that  a  more 
general  use  might  be  made  of  it  to  great  advantage. 
The  first  requisite  to  success  is  a  suitable  seed-bed. 
High  ridge  tillage,  so  universally  in  vogue  in  both 
maize  and  cotton  fields,  might  be  somewhat  modified, 
especially  in  the  case  of  maize,  and  somewhat  moi-e 
level  inter-tillage  given.  After  the  summer  tillage 
has  been  completed,  a  fine  seed-bed  could  be  prei)ared 
between  the  rows  without  destroying  the  ridges,  by 
the  use  of  a  one-horse  cultivator  provided  with 
many  smallish  teeth,  passed  over  each  space  once  be- 
fore and  once  after  the  seeds  are  sown.  In  a 
similar  way,  all  oat  stubbles  could  be  prepared  and 
seeded,  as  well  as  orchard  and  other  open  lands.  On 
these  otherwise  unoccupied  spaces  crimson  clovei- 
could  be  used  as  a  cover  crop  wherever  it  flourishes. 
Should  the  practice  of  using  crimson  clover  as  a 
catch  or  cover  crop  be  associated  with  a  more  gen- 
eral cultivation  of  the  cow  pea.  the  i>ro])lem  of  a  sup- 
ply of  nitrogen  for  tilled  lands  would  l)e  practically 
solved  for  the  south. 

In  most  of  the  southern  states  a  warm  summer 
and  fall,  in  whicli  nitrification  is  extremely  active,  is 
followed  by  superabundant  rains,  which  wash  out  the 
nitrogen  liberated  during  the  warm  weather,  and  in 
some  cases  cause  such  degradation  of  the  soil  as  to 
destroy  its  usefulness  for  tillage  purposes.  By  cov- 
ering the  land   with    living  plants,   this  degradation  of 


282  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

the  soil  might  be  prevented  and  the  nitrogen  largely 
conserved. 

Beneficial  results  are  frequently  not  secured  by 
applications  of  nitrogen  and  other  forms  of  plant- 
food,  for  one  or  both  of  two  reasons.  The  breeding 
of  the  plant  may  be  such  that  it  can  not  make  use 
of  more  food  than  the  soil  naturally  supplies,  or  the 
soil  may  be  so  imperfectly  fitted  that  the  plant,  no 
matter  how  high-bred,  can  not  secure  it. 

Moisture  plays  an  important  part  not  only  in  the 
growth  and  fruitage  of  plants,  but  also  in  changing 
nitrogenous  compounds  into  nitrates.  Happily,  the 
means  used  to  conserve  moisture  and  secure  nitrogen 
may,  at  the  same  time,  be  made  to  increase  or  re- 
duce the  temperature  and  to  secure  superior  physical 
texture  of  the  soil. 

Briefly,  then,  the  living  plant  and  the  implements 
of  tillage,  intelligently  used,  furnish  the  means  for 
changing  dormant  plant -food  into  that  which  is  avail- 
able, for  conserving  moisture,  for  promoting  nitrifica- 
tion while  adding  and  conserving  nitrogen,  for  mak- 
ing the  conditions  comfortable  for  the  crops,  and  for 
accomplishing  these  and  other  results  in  the  simplest, 
cheapest  and  most  satisfactory  manner. 

PREVENTION    OF    LOSS    OF    NITROGEN    IN    STABLE 
MANURES. 

So  much  has  been  said  concerning  the  absorption 
of  nitrogen,  or  the  retarding  of  nitrogen -loss,  in  ma- 
nures, by  means    of    various  coverings   and   chemicals. 


Nitrogen   Dissipation.  233 

that  a  somewhat  full  abstract  is  here  given  of  a 
recent  German  discussion  of   the  subject. 

In  a  recent  article  by  H.  Imniendorff  on  the  con- 
servation of  the  nitrogen  of  stable  manure,*  the 
subject  is  introduced  by  stating  that  of  the  substances 
in  numure  which  are  to  be  saved,  it  is  agreed  that 
the  nitrogen  is  of  first  importance  and  the  organic 
matter  next.  As  to  the  method  of  conservation — 
chemical  or  mechanical — much  differenc-e  of  opinion 
exists.  This  the  author  considers  to  be  dtU3  to  incor- 
rect knowledge  of  the  sequence  of  the  events  to  l)e 
controlled,  and  to  the  insufficient  separation  of  work 
of  fundamental  importance  upon  the  subject  from 
work  of  minor  importance.  It  is  of  pi-ime  importance 
to  know  when  and  where,  in  the  ordinary  farm  opera- 
tions, losses  occur,  and  Avhat  course  of  events  causes 
them. 

The  dissipation  of  free  nitrogen  has  l)een  held  by 
some  to  be  the  cause  of  the  loss  of  value  in  manure. 
Exact  experiments  to  determine  this  loss  showed  this 
element  escaping  (in  the  absence  of  nitrous  or  nitric 
acid)  only  when  comparatively  large  quantities  of  air 
had  access  to  the  fermenting  masses.  Tliis  condi- 
tion lasts  at  the  most  but  20  days  in  ordiuaiy  farm 
practice.  Experiments  by  the  author  with  bone, 
horn,  flesh  and  blood  meal  without  admixture  of 
earth,  and  with  much  air  accessible,  showed  as  high 
as  60  per  cent  loss  of  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the 
original  material  in  the  form  of  ammonia;  and  the 
loss  of    free    nitrogen    was    uiuleterminable    generally. 

*  Journal   fUr   Landwirtschaft,  vol.  ilii.   W.H.      Tiauslated  by  •>.  N.  Launiau. 


234  Thr    Fertiliiy   of  the    Land. 

and  in  the  case  of  greatest  loss  amounted  to  6.2 
per  cent  for  a  time  of  121  days,  giving  for  20  days  a 
loss  of  a  fraction  over  1  per  cent. 

With  the  addition  of  soil  or  soil  extract  to  these 
materials,  the  conditions  for  the  development  of  free 
nitrogen  were  much  more  favorable.  In  one  exper- 
iment, showing  the  highest  loss  of  free  nitrogen, 
the  soil  was  saturated  with  ammonium  sulfate 
([NHjjSOj  and  then  there  escaped  as  free  nitro- 
gen, in  113  days,  20. G  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  in 
the  original  sul)stance.  This,  calculated  for  20  days. 
gives  a  loss  of  3.S  jx'r  cent.  Other  experimenters 
have  reached  similar  results,  and  Immcndorff  (ron- 
cludes  that  "the  elementary  niti'ogen  set  free  in  the 
processes  of  fermentation  and  decomi)osition  does 
not  account  foi*  tiie  great  loss  of  nitrogen  occur- 
ring in  the  manure  from  the  moment  of  produc- 
tion   to    the    time    of    deposition    on    the    field." 

In  the  foregoing,  it  has  not  ])een  considered  that 
in  the  presence  of  nitrous  or  nitric  acid  the  losses 
of  free  nitrogen  may  l)ecome  considerable.  In  nor- 
nuil,  fresh  manure,  there  are  neithei-  nitrates  nor 
nitrites,  and  the  first  fermentations  which  take  place 
are  those  in  which  large  (|uantitics  of  hydi-ogen- 
containing  i)roducts,  and  even  free  hydrogen,  are 
l)roduced.  It  has,  however,  never  been  observed  that 
during  the  most  energetic  formation  of  ammonia 
the  nitrifying  organisms  develop  any  greater  activity. 
In  the  stable,  therefore,  it  will  seldom  or  never  hap- 
l)en  that  nitric  acid  will  appear  in  such  (Quantities  as 
to    cause    serious    trouble.     On    the    manure    pile,  only 


Nitrogen    Escapes   as    Ammonia.  235 

the  surface  offers  an  opportunity  for  the  formation 
of  the  oxids  of  nitrogen,  and  here  it  may  be  of 
importance  to  check  this  tendency  by  good  packing 
and  covering. 

From  all  the  foregoing  and  other  data  whicih  the 
author  discusses,  he  concludes  as  follows:  (1)  "The 
chief  cause  for  the  loss  of  combined  nitrogen  which 
manure  undergoes  in  the  ordinary  course  of  iuind- 
ling  is  to  be  sought  in  the  es('a])ing  ammonia;" 
and  (2)  That  "the  formation  of  free  nitrogen  is,  in  a 
vei-y  subordinate  measure,  another  cause." 

Where  and  Avhen  are  the  greatest  losses  of  nitro- 
gen encountered  ?  To  this  question  the  experiments 
of  Miintz  and  Girard*  give  rather  satisfactory  an- 
swers. The  gi-eat  loss  of  nitrogen  is  found  in  the 
ammonia  escaping  diu-ing  the  very  active  fermenta- 
tion beginning  immediately  after  evacuation.  Labo- 
ratory tests  with  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements 
separately,  show  that  in  the  liquid  excrements  the 
ammonia  fermentation  is  accomplished  w'ith  great  in- 
tensity, and  all  of  the  nitrogen  changes  to  ammonia. 
The  solid  excrements,  however,  allow  only  small 
quantities  of  ammonia  to  be  formed.  As  the  greater 
quantity  of  the  nitrogen  in  excrements  is  found  in 
the  lifjuid  portion,  the  great  loss  of  nitrogen  in 
ammonia  fermentation  is  explained;  and,  furthermore, 
the  experiments  show  that  at  rather  low  tempera- 
tures, and  also  with  the  exclusion  of  all  ventila- 
tion, the  escaping  ammonia  may  be  considerable.  In 
the  stable,   the  conditions    for   ammonia    fermentations 

*Aiinales   Agroiioiniques,    1893.   lii.    No.    1,   p.   .'i. 


236  Thf    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

are  more  favorable  than  the  conditions  of  these  ex- 
periments were.  On  the  manure  pile,  the  conditions 
are  less  favorable  to  this  development  of  ammonia 
fermentation,  especially  with  good  packing  and  suffi- 
cient moisture,  when  only  the  top  layers  are  in- 
volved. 

On  the  top  of  the  manure  pile,  however,  reac- 
tions take  place  which  })ring  about  the  escape  of 
free  nitrogrfen.  Here  is  where  the  process  of  nitri- 
fication begins,  and.  under  certain  (-onditions,  de- 
velops great  strength.  Holdefleiss  calculates  the  loss 
of  nitrogen  from  the  manure  produced  by  cattle, 
in  one  year,  to  be  16.8  kilograms  (.'}6.9  pounds), 
and  found  that  23.4  per  cent  of  the  total  nitrogen 
in  the  manure,  when  placed  on  the  manure  pile, 
had   escaped. 

TIow  can  the  losses  in  the  stable  and  on  the 
raanui-e  pile  be  reduced  to  a  minimum?  The  means 
which  the  author  discusses  are  both  mechanical  and 
(!hemical,  and  these  now  follow: 

Straw. — In  an  experiment  with  sheep  bedded  with 
a  very  large  amount  of  straw.  Miintz  and  (Jirard 
found  \hht  but  40  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  taken 
in  as  food  was  lost,  while  without  straw  the  loss  was 
")9  per  cent.  When  l)ut  an  ordinary  amount  of 
straw  was  used,  the  loss  was  .')(). 2  per  cent.  Straw 
is  thus  seen  to  have  a  certain  although  not  very 
marked  influence  in  the  conservation  of  nitrogen. 

Muck  was  compared  with  straw  in  an  experiment 
with  horses.  The  formei-  showed  a  loss  of  44.087 
kilograms    (1)6.991     pounds)     of     nitrogen,    while    the 


Merhaniral    (loiiservin'j    Agents.  287 

latter  showed  a  loss  of  58.043  kilograms  (127.694 
pounds) . 

Earth. — With  a  sandy  earth,  properly  prepared 
(dried  in  the  air  and  passed  through  a  1.5  cm. 
[.59  inches]  mesh),  the  experiment  was  made  with 
sheep  and  compared  with  the  results  with  straw. 
It  was  found  that  with  earth  the  loss  of  niti-ogen 
taken  in  the  food  was  25.7  per  cent,  while  that  with 
straw  (as  before  noted)   was  50.2   per  cent. 

The  comparative  efficiency  of  such  materials  when 
tested  for  their  power  of  mechanically  absorbing 
volatile  ammonium  carbonate  ([NHjsCOj)  resulted 
per  kilogram  of  substance  as  follows: 

Garden  soil n.38  grams  taken  up. 

Heath       •'    (i.tiO 

Moss  muck 8.(i:i 

Peat  mold 11. 0;?       

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  humus  soils  and  moss 
preparations  are  of  great  importance. 

In  addition  to  these  experiments,  Miintz  and 
Girard  tested  in  the  laboratory  the  efficiency  of  an 
earth  covering  over  fresh  manure  as  a  preventive 
of  ammonia  losses.  The  experiment  excluded  all 
ventilation.  Under  glass  was  placed  fresh  cow  and 
sheep  manure,  3  kilograms  (6.6  pounds)  of  each,  and 
in  each  case  one  sample  was  covered  2  cm.  (.78 
inch)  deep  with  earth,  while  the  other  was  left 
uncovered.  The  ammonia  developed  during  the  four 
months  of  the  experiment  was  fixed  in  standardized 
sulfuric  acid.  The  uncovered  cow  manure  showed 
that  142  milligrams   (2.1868  grains)  of   ammonia   had 


238  The    Fertiliiy    of  flu    Laud. 

escaped,  while  tlie  uncovered  sheep  manure  showed 
1.642  niilligrams  (25.28G8  grains).  The  covered  cow 
manure  showed  that  10  milligrams  (.154  grains)  of 
ammonia  had  escaped,  and  the  covered  sheep  ma- 
nure showed  128  milligrams  (1.9712  grains).  This 
experiment  shows  how  an  insignificant  covering  of 
earth  can  prevent  the  loss  of  ammonia.  Miintz 
and  Girard  advise  the  farmer  not  to  sell  his  straw, 
and  in  lieu  procure  muck,  etc..  tor  use  in  the 
stable  and  on  the  nuuiure  pile,  but  to  use  the 
straw,  and  make  judicious  use  of  the  powers  of  the 
other  materials. 

Lime. — The  u.se  of  lime  was  found  by  Miintz  and 
(xirard    to    accelerate    the    ammonia    fermentation. 

Thomas  slag. —  Holdefleiss  found  that  the  use  of 
Thomas  slag  had  the  same  effect  as  the  use  of  lime, 
due,  in  all  probability,  to  the  not  insignificant  quan- 
tity  of   lime    in  the  slag. 

Sulfate  of  iron  (copperas). — Miintz  and  Girai'd 
found  that  on  the  addition  of  this  sulfate  of  iron, 
a  combination  was  formed,  resulting  finally  in  tin- 
production  of  ammonium  sulfate  ([XH4],S04),  a 
non- volatile  product.  It  was  not,  however,  men- 
tioned by  Miintz  and  Girard  that  the  large  quantity 
of  iron  freed  in  the  production  of  this  ammonium 
sulfate  could  bring  about  the  insolubility  of  the 
phosphoric    acid  in  the  manure. 

Gypsum  (plaster). — This  material  acts  in  the  man- 
ner of  sulfate  of  iron  in  that  it  causes  to  be  pro- 
duced ammonium  sulfate  ([NHJ.SO4)  and  calcium 
carbonate     (CaCOj).        But     these     reactions    are    not 


Chemical    Conscrrin//   Af/ents.  239 

cjin-ied  to  the  end.  The  ealciuni  carbonate  (CaCOj 
in  tnrn  changes  tlie  aninioninm  snlfate  ([NHj2S()«). 
In  all  such  cases  where  gypsum  was  used,  all  salts 
l)()ssible  from  the  elements  involved  were  produced, 
namely,  calcium  sulfate  (CaS04),  ammonium  sulfate 
([NHJ2SO4),  calcium  carbonate  (CaCO,)  and  am- 
monium carbonate  (  [XHj^^COj) .  The  last  mentioned 
salt  always  retains  its  volatile  nature,  and  when 
allowed  to  escape  was  continually  formed. 

Kainit  (sodium  and  potassium  chlorides). — Kainit 
is  supposed  by  Miintz  and  (rii-ai-d  to  have  the  same 
intluenee  on  ammonium  carbonate  ([NHJ2CO3)  as 
gypsum  does,  on  a(H!Ount  of  the  magnesium  it  con- 
tains. Immendorif  does  not  agree  with  this,  and 
thinks  the  ammonium  and  magnesium  salts  readily 
form  double  salts,  by  which  a  weakening  of  the  ten- 
sion of  the  ammonium  carbonate  ([XHjA'O?)  sets 
in.  The  possibility  of  the  fixation  of  some  ammo- 
nium in  the  production  of  ammonium  and  magne- 
sium phosphates  is  allowed  by  ]\Iiintz  and  (iirard. 
One  very  important  property  of  kainit  is  not  men- 
tioned I)}'  these  authors.  It  is  the  property  of  this 
salt  to  retard  fermentations,  and,  strewn  in  proper 
quantities  in  the  stable,  where  the  loss  is  greatest, 
it  will  allow  but  little  fermentation. 

Superphosphate. — This  substance,  containing  small 
quantities  of  free  phosphoric  and  sulfuric  acids, 
acts  directly  on  ammonia  through  these  acids  in  fix- 
mg  it.  and  indirectly  through  the  gypsum  it  con- 
tains. This  latter  action  has  already  been  explained. 
In    Germanv    the    most    valuable    chemical    conserving 


240  The    FertilHy    of  ihe    Land. 

materials    are   considered    to    be  superphosphates,  rich 
in  free   phospliorie  aeid,  and  kainit. 

Experiments  in  the  laboratory  were  conducted 
witn  three  samples  each  of  cow  and  sheep  manures, 
the  same  amount  in  each  case.  To  one  sample  noth- 
ing was  added,  to  another  sulfate  of  iron,  and  to 
the  third  gypsum.  The  six  samples,  placed  in  closed 
vessels,  were  allowed  to  ferment  from  May  27  to 
October  8,  1888,  and  the  ammonia  formed  was  fixed 
in  standardized  sulfuric  acid  and  determined,  with 
the  following  results: 

Cow  manure,  Sheep  manure, 

loss  of  nitrogen,  loss  of  nitrogen. 

grams.  grams. 

With  nothing 142  1.642 

"      sulfate  of  iron  (copperas) OS.'i  1.092 

••  lime  (gypsum) 052  .409 

A  second  experiment  was  conducted  under  simi- 
lar  conditions: 

Escaped  ammonia,  in  grams. 
6  days.     12  days.    21  days.     31  days.    .>(  days. 
200  c.  cm.  cow  urine, 

nothing  added 121         .333  .GCl  .950         1..350 

200  c.  cm.  cow  urine, 

with  2  g.  gypsun..    .072         .165  .349  .576  .895 

The  experiment  shows  that  gypsum  has  a  conserv- 
ing effect,  but  cannot  by  any  means  conserve  all 
the  ammonia.  Air  currents  were  not  used  in  either 
experiment. 

Exi)criments  in  the  sheep  stable  were  conducted 
with  .sulfate  of  iron  in  small  quantities.  Twenty 
yimnj^  sheep  were  bedded  during  21  days    on    30  kilo- 


Experiments    with    Sheep.  241 

grams  (66  pounds)  of  straw,  which  from  time  to  time 
was  strewn  with  sulfate  of  iron.  During  the  whole 
of  the  experiment,  6  kilograms  (13.2  pounds)  of  sul- 
fate of  iron  were  used,  or  15  grams  (.52  ounces)  per 
animal  per  day.  The  result  showed  a  loss  of  48.5 
per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  taken  in  with  the  food. 
In  previous  experiments,  to  determine  the  proportion 
of  loss  of  nitrogen  in  the  stable  to  that  contained 
in  the  food,  the  losses  were  not  greater  than  in 
this  experiment,  showing  that  the  sulfate  of  iron  in 
small  quantity  had  not  the  power  to  reduce  this 
loss. 

The  same  kind  of  experiments  were  conducted 
with  sheep,  using  gypsum.  Twenty  young  sheep 
were  used  for  21  days,  on  30  kilograms  (GG  pounds) 
of  straw,  and  every  4  or  5  days  gypsum  was  strewn 
about.  The  total  gypsum  used  was  12  kilograms 
(2G.4  pounds),  or  30  grams  (1.04  ounces)  per  animal 
per  day.  The  result  showed  a  loss  of  46.1  per 
cent  of  the  nitrogen  taken  in  with  the  food.  In 
a  second  experiment  the  gypsum  was  increased. 
Ten  sheep  were  used  for  21  days  on  40  kilograms 
(88  pounds)  of  straw.  One  kilogram  (2.2  pounds)  of 
gypsum  was  used  daily,  or  100  grams  (3.52  ounces) 
per  animal  per  day.  The  result  showed  a  loss  of 
33.9  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  taken  in  with  the  food. 
Previous  experiments,  with  no  covering  material  other 
than  straw,  showed  a  loss  of  55.3  per  cent  of  the 
nitrogen  in  the  food.  It  is  seen  that  the  larger 
quantity  of  gypsum  prevented  much  ammonia  from 
escaping. 


242  Thf    FertUitij    »f  tin     UiiuJ . 

The  cause  of  the  slight  effect  of  small  quantities 
of  these  chemical  nitrogen -conservers,  and  especially 
of  the  sulfate  of  iron,  has  been  thoroughly  set  forth 
by  Miintz  and  Girard.  Fresh  manures  from  herbivo- 
rous animals  possess  a  very  high  alkalinity,  due,  in 
general,  to  the  large  quantities  of  double  potassium 
carbonate  in  the  urine  and  the  rather  large  (|uantity 
of  calcium  carbonate  in  the  solid  excrements.  This 
alkaline  reaction  of  the  excrements  is  one  of  the 
causes  retarding  the  action  of  chemical  conserving 
agents.  It  is  to  be  regarded,  say  Miintz  and  (lirard, 
that  according  to  well  known  reactions,  sulfate  of 
iron,  gypsum,  kainit,  superphosphates,  etc.,  must  neu- 
tralize the  fixed  bases,  which  are  in  the  manure  in  tin- 
form  of  carbonates,  before  they  are  able  to  bind  th*- 
ammonia.  The  alkalinity  of  various  excrements  was 
determined  ])y  tlie  amount  of  sulfuric  acid  whidi 
one  kilogram  (2.2  pounds)  of  the  excrements  in 
(juestion    would   neutralize,  and  resulted  as  follows: 

t trams.         Av.  of  liv 

terminatious. 

Horse  manure  (solid  and  liquid  i \.\i't  4 

("ow  and  oxen  manure  ( solid  and  licjuid  I :t.t)4  7 

Sheep  manure  ( solid  an<l  liijuid  I 4.'J'.t  4 

Hot;  manure  (  solid  and  liiiuid  I J.(i"J  "J 

In  another  experiment,  comparing  the  alkalinity  of 
the  solid  and  liquid  excrements  separately,  on  the 
same  basis  as  above,  the  following  results  were  ob- 
tained : 

Irine.  grHinv.  J>uiik, 

Horse  .'1.4         sfeminKly  neutral. 

( 'ow 0.^  L'.oy 

.Shee|. 14.20  1.8« 


Economics    of   Cnttserntin    .\f(tf<'r>oJ .  243 

Miintz  and  Girard  consider  that  tlw  property  <>f 
sulfate  of  iron  in  holding  ammonia  is  proportional  to 
the  amount  of  the  sulfuric  acid  it  contains,  or  about 
25  per  cent  of  its  weight.  They  then  calculated  the 
following  table: 

Amount  of  Ave.  loss  of  Sulfate        of  Sulfate    of  Total  sulfate 

\\' -i 'lit  of                  manure  in  ammonia  iron  to  com-  iron       to  of  iron  nee - 

Maiuirt".          inimal                      "^'**     '^^"'  in  stable, in  hinc     with  neutralizfr  essar> .      in 

(luceil    in  lbs.  ammonia,  alkalinity,  Ibs 

I  year  in  lbs.  in  lbs. 

Horse  (1,210  Ib.s.  I....      22,400  28.;J8  ;i24.28         121.44         44."). 72 

Cow  (1,320  lbs.) 2,5,080         101.64  1.1G1.60         :!()r).8ti      l.r)27.4(; 

Sheep  (99  lbs.)   l.TfiO  1.5.18  17:f.:{(i  .•{0.14         20:!..W 

The  enormous  quantities  of  sulfate  of  iron  are  the 
minima  necessary  to  hold  all  the  ammonia,  and,  in 
practice,  still  larger  quantities  would  certainly  be  nec- 
essary to  arrive  at  the  desired  results.  The  price  of 
this  sulfate  of  iron  w(tuld  be  almost  two-thirds  of 
the  value  of  the   conserved   nitrogen. 

The  authors  think  that  the  same  results  would  be 
had  with  kainit.  Both  substances  would,  l)y  the  fact 
that  the  alkalinity  of  the  manure  is  destroyed,  hin- 
der the  rotting  of  the  manure,  and  thus  cause  a 
lessening  of   its   value. 

With  the  data  from  their  experiments,  Miintz  and 
Girard  come  to  the  conclusion  in  regard  to  the  use 
of  chemical  nitrogen -conserving  agents,  that  "on  ac- 
count of  the  presence  of  fixed  bases,  too  large  quan- 
tities of  such  agents  must  be  used,  so  that  the  good 
to  be  derived  from  their  action  is  in  a  large  measure 
lost." 

With  superphosphate,  Miintz  and  Girard  did  not 
experiment    in    this    way,    and    Immendorff    is    of    the 


244  Thi    Fn-tUUtj    of  f)n     lAinti . 

<)l»inion  that  since  much  smaller  quantities  of  this 
are  necessary,  at  the  present  prices  it  may  be  used 
to  advantage  under  certain  conditions,  either  alone 
or  with  kainit  or  other  potash  salts,  as  these  latter 
are   supposed   to   retard   ammoniacal    fermentation. 

From  the  foregoing  discussion  in  ImmendorflF's 
paper,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that,  all  things  <!on- 
sidered,  nothing  better  than  dry  earth  containing  a 
large  per(;entage  of  humus  has  yet  been  found  for 
conserving  nitrogen  in  the  stable  and  in  the  ma- 
nure heap.  While  gypsum  is  valuable  for  this  pur- 
pose, there  are  many  lot^alities  where  it  cannot  be 
easily  procured,  and  in  any  case,  its  first  cost  is  con- 
siderable, while  hunnis  and  eai'th  are  abundant  on 
most  farms,  and  can  always  l)c  secured  and  stored  for 
use  at  a  nominal  cost.  It  is  gratifying  to  know  that 
the  farmer  has  always  at  hand  the  means  of  pre- 
venting largely  the  loss  of  nitrogen  in  barn  manures, 
means  which  have  heretofore  been  left  almost  en- 
tirely unused,  although  the  value  of  the  dry-earth 
closet  as  a  sanitary  agent  is  well  known  to  tidy 
farmers. 

EXPLANATION     OF    NITRIFICATION.* 

Nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrate  is  generally  re- 
garded as  the  best  kind  of  nitrogen -food  for  plants. 
Nitrates  are  compounds  of  nitric  acid  with  metals 
or  bases,  as  potassium  nitrate  (KNO,).  sodium  nitrate 

•By  Georite   W.   ("nvauaugh.  .\ssistaiit    Cheiiiist    in    tlie  Cornell  Experimeui 
Statiou. 


Whai    are    Xifrnffs  f  24o 

(NaNOj),  calcium  nitrate  (CaCNO,],)  and  ammon- 
ium nitrate  (NH4NO3).  Plants  obtain  their  nitric 
acid  by  absorbing  (1)  the  nitrates  that  are  already 
pivsent  in  the  soil;  (2)  those  that  are  carried  down 
to  the  soil  from  the  air  in  rain  and  snow;  (3) 
those  that  are  applied  artificially  in  fertilizers,  and 
(4)  those  that  are  formed  in  the  soil  from  the  nitro- 
gen of  other  substances.  As  is  well  knoAvn.  all  of 
the  nitrogen  that  is  applied  to  the  soil  for  fertil- 
izing purposes,  especially  in  barn  manures  and  green 
cover  crops,  is  not  in  the  form  of  nitrates.  It  may 
])e  either  in  the  form  of  ammonia  (NH,).  or  of 
more  complex  organic  compounds.  It  is  very  prob- 
able, however,  that  before  it  is  taken  up  by  the 
plant,  the  organic  nitrogen  is  (changed  first  into  the 
form  of  ammonia  (XH3),  and  then  into  nitric  acid 
(HXOj).  These  changes  all  take  place  through  the 
agency  of  micro-organisms  or  ferments,  and  that 
])articular  process  in  which  the  nitrogen  of  the  am- 
monia is  changed  into  nitric  acid  is  called  nitrifica- 
tion. This  change  is  accomplished  by  the  joint 
action  of  two  separate  organisms,  one  of  which 
changes  the  nitrogen  of  ammonia  into  nitroiis  acid 
(HNO2),  while  the  other  changes  the  nitrous  acid 
into  nitric  acid  (HXO3).  Perhaps  a  clearer  idea  may 
be  obtained  if  nitrification  be  considered  as  a  process 
somewhat  comparable  to  the  fermentation  by  yeast. ^ 
In  the  case  of  the  yeast,  part  of  the  carbon  of  the 
sugar   is    liberated    as   carbonic    acid    gas.    or    carbon 

*This  eouiparisou  is  giveii  only  to  emphasize  Itie  fact  to  tne  general  reader 
that  nitrification  is  a  liiologieal  process. 


246  Thf    Feriiliiii    of  the    Txind. 

dioxid    (CO.).    while    the  nitrifying    organisms  change 
the  nitrogen  of  ammonia  into  nitric  acid  (HXO3). 

The  conditions  that  are  required  for  the  devel- 
opment of  nitrifying  organisms  are  the  presence  of 
certain  food  constituents,  heat,  moisture,  oxygen,  and 
some  base  to  neutralize  the  nitric  acid  as  it  is 
formed.  It  is  also  necessary  that  the  soil  ])e  slightly 
alkaline.  ])ut  too  much  alkali  retards  the  process. 
The  nitrifying  organisms  require  certain  substances 
as  food,  among  which  phosphoric  acid  is  most  impor- 
tant. It  has  been  found  that  without  phosphoric 
acid  there  can  be  no  nitrification.  This  may  be  one 
of  the  reasons  why  |)hosphates  show  beneficial  re- 
sults when  applied  to  some  soils,  as  well  as  furnish- 
ing plant -food  directly.  The  three  conditions  which 
exert  a  nuirked  influence  on  nitrification,  and  which 
in  agricultural  practice  are  more  or  less  intimately 
associated,  are  heat,  air,  and  moisture.  The  process 
is  most  rapid  during  warm  weather,  in  presence  of 
sufficient  air  and  moisture.  Here,  then,  is  one  of 
the  reasons  why  thorough  tillage  is  essential.  The 
loosening  and  pulverizing  of  the  soil  allows  the 
admission  of  the  necessary  oxygen,  and  regulates 
the  supply  of  moisture.  If  the  soil  is  very  dry,  or 
is  flooded  with  water  to  the  exclusion  of  air,  nitrifi- 
cation is  retarded,  and  may  be  permanently  stopped. 
In  this  connection,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in 
pasture  lands,  which  receive  no  tillage,  and,  conse- 
quently, are  more  impervious  to  air  than  cultivated 
fields,  nitrites,  or  compounds  of  nitrous  acid,  are 
more  abundant  than  nitrates. 


Linif    and    Nitrification.  247 

The  final  prodiu-t  of  nitrification  is  nitric  acid 
But  the  nitrifying  organisms  cannot  develop  in  the 
presence  of  a  free  acid;  hence  the  benefit  of  liming 
sour  soils.  The  lime  corrects  the  sourness  of  the 
soil  by  neutralizing  the  free  acid,  and  then  if  the 
other  conditions  of  heat,  oxygen,  moisture  and  food 
are  favorable,  nitriti(;ation  may  proceed.  There  must 
be  an  excess  of  lime  applied  over  and  above  the 
amount  necessary  to  coi-rect  the  acidity  of  the  soil, 
to  neutralize  the  nitric  acid  as  it  is  formed.  When 
the  lime  combines  with  nitric  acid,  the  reaction  can 
be  expressed  by  the  following  equation : 

CaCO,    -  2HNO3  =  Ca(  NO3),  -    CO,  -  H,0. 

One  part  of  calcium  carbonate  (CaCOj)  reacts 
with  two  parts  of  nitric  acid  (HNO3)  to  form  one 
part  of  calcium  nitrate  (CaCXOsJa),  one  part  of 
carbon  dioxid  (CO2)  and  one  part  of  water  (H^O). 
In  this  equation  mild  lime  (calcium  carbonate. 
CaCOj)  is  used,  because  this  is  the  form  of  lime 
most  favorable  for  promoting  nitrification.  When 
caustic  or  hydrated  lime  (Ca[OH],) — that  is,  water- 
slaked  lime  —  is  applied  to  soils,  it  may  act  ener- 
getically, tending  to  decompose  and  render  available 
the  insoluble  compounds  of  potash.  True,  the  caustic 
lime  may  have  at  first  a  retarding  effect  on  nitri- 
fication by  rendering  the  soil  too  alkaline,  but  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere  soon  converts  it  into  mild 
or  air-slaked  lime  (CaCOj).  when  it  js  in  its  heM 
tovm  for  promoting  nitrification. 


248  The    FeHilify    of  the    Land. 

Whenever  the  soil  is  in  a  condition  unfavorabk 
to  nitrifieation,  there  is  danger  that  not  only  may 
nitrates  not  be  fornu'<l,  ))nt  that  there  will  be  a  loss 
of  nitrogen  from  thoso  nitrates  that  may  be  present. 
This  loss  is  due  to  a  process  known  as  denitrifi- 
cation,  which  is  also  dejKMident  on  micro-organisms. 
The  denitrifying  organisms  flourish  under  one  con- 
dition which  is  directly  opposed  to  the  corresponding 
condition  favoring  nitrification, — namely,  the  al)sence 
of  oxygen.  Under  that  condition  the  nitrates  may 
be  reduced  or  (jhanged  l)ack  to  nitrites,  and  the 
nitrites  are  often  further  reduced  till  they  lose  their 
nitrogen  by  having  it  pass  off  into  the  air  as  gaseous 
nitrogen. 

Denitrifieation  may  take  place,  therefore,  in  water- 
logged soils  and  in  the  inner  parts  of  manure 
piles,*  where  air  is  measurably  excluded. 

The  organisms  found  in  the  tubercles  ou  the 
roots  of  clovers  and  other  legumes  are  not  the  or- 
ganisms that  produce  nitric  acid.  Their  office  is  to 
fix  or  seize  upon  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air. 

•This  subject  is  discussed    from    the    horticultural    standpoint    in    Bailey's 
Forcing-Book,  p.  62. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

THE   PHOSPHORIC  ACID   AM)   POTASH  SUPPLY. 

The  amounts  aud  availubilitj'  of  these  two  mineral 
elements  of  plant  life  vary  greatly  in  soils.  It  is 
evident  that  the  lands  from  which  crops  have  been 
harvested  for  a  series  of  years,  and  those  which 
have  been  devoted  to  pasturage,  must  contain  less 
of  these  minerals  than  they  did  when  first  reclaimed 
from  a  state  of  nature,  and  this  is  true  even  when 
the  most  painstaking  effort  has  been  made  to  return 
to  the  land  the  refuse  material  and  manures  result- 
ing from  crops  and  animals,  for  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  return  all  that  had  been  removed,  since 
there  would  be  no  object  in  harvesting  crops  or 
keeping  animals  unless  their  edible  or  commercial 
parts  were  used  or  sold.  Therefore,  no  matter  how 
economically  the  native  supply  of  these  elements  has 
been  conserved,  or  how  skilfully  the  elements  have 
been  made  gradually  available,  the  time  must  come, 
sooner  or  later,  when  the  native  supply  will  be  so 
diminished  as  to  require  additions  from  outside 
sources,  if  full  crops  are  to  be  maintained. 

HUSBANDING     THE     MINERAL     PLANT -FOODS. 

The  problem  which  should  first  arrest  the  atten- 
tion  of    the    husbandman    is,  how    much     phosphoric 

(249) 


2r)0  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

acid  and  potash  must  be  carried  in  the  soil,  and 
liow  mueli  may  l)e  taken  out  without  reducing  tlic 
reserve  below  the  profitable  standard.  And  it  r»- 
<|uires  no  little  skill  to  solve  this  proldem.  This 
is  followed  by  a  question  equally  diflflcult:  How  }>est 
to  make  available,  and  when  once  available,  how  to 
••aptun;  and  hold  the  mineral  matter  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  remove.  Shall  drain  tiles,  or  plants  which 
are  able  to  thrive  on  "tough"  food  and  to  transform 
it  into  that  which  is  "tender,"  or  better  implements 
of  tillage,  one  or  all,  be  used  to  force  the  harvests 
from  the  "face-sweating,   stub})orn  glebe?" 

How  far  shall  we  go  in  our  endeavors  to  make  the 
dormant  minerals  soluble?  If  they  are  made  soluble 
by  tillage  and  other  means,  they  pass  but  a  short 
way  into  the  soil  l)efore  they  unite  with  bases,  and 
again  become  insoluble.  Shall  the  effort  be  to  pro- 
ceed only  so  far  with  tillage  as  will  give  the  plant 
opportunity  to  set  free  its  own  mineral  food  by  the 
action  of  its  roots;  that  is,  make  the  material  in 
the  soil  available  ?  The  question  is  not  answered 
when  we  dodge  behind  the  word  "available,"  for  how- 
ever available  the  food  may  be.  if  there  are  not  suit- 
able roots  and  rootlets,  or  enough  of  them,  to  take 
advantage  of  the  food  prepared,  or  if  the  rootlets 
are  not  made  comfortable,  the  full  power  of  the  soil 
(tannot  enter  into  the  plant. 

Most  soils  carry  vast  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  (see  Tables  I.  and  II.),  much  of  which, 
under  careless  or  even  oi-dinary  tillage,  appear  to  be 
ut-arly  or  entirely  u^^dess,       If   the  tables    in    the    last 


Meager    Yields   of   Crops.  251 

Census  Report  are  scanned,  it  will  be  seen  that 
cither  the  soil  in  the  United  States  is  carrying  but 
little  av'ailable  plant -food,  or  that  the  skill  has  not 
been  acquired  to  make  the  stores  available.  An  in- 
spection of  the  fields,  and  also  of  the  tables  which 
give  the  numerous  analyses  of  soils  made  in  this 
country,  compel  the  conclusion  that  the  meager  aver- 
age yield  of  crops  is  not  due,  in  a  majority  of 
cases,  to  a  lack  of  mineral  constituents  in  the  soil, 
nor  to  any  unusual  combination  with  bases  which 
might  cause  them  to  be  so  firmly  held  as  to  make 
their  liberation  extremely  difficult. 

Most  of  the  land  in  the  United  States  has  been 
under  cultivation  less  than  one  hundred  years. — 
extended  areas  less  than  fifty  years;  yet  the  culti- 
vation of  some  of  the  more  exacting  crops,  as 
wheat,  has  been  abandoned  in  many  localities  because 
the  available  supply  of  plant -food  in  the  soil  under 
present  methods  of  tillage  is  less  than  is  required 
for  a  profitable  yield.  In  some  localities,  wheat 
growing  has  beeu  abandoned  ])ecause  the  production 
of  garden  crops  or  milk  and  fruit  is  found  to  be 
more  remunerative  than  the  growing  of  cereals. 
The  average  production  per  acre  of  some  of  the 
crops  substituted  for  wheat  is  so  small, —  potatoes 
for  instance,  —  (the  average  yield  in  Xew  York,  1889. 
was  68.8  bushels  per  acre),  that  it  is  conclusive  evi- 
dence that  the  land,  after  less  than  a  century's  use, 
is  seriously  depleted  of  its  life-giving  elements,  or 
that  villainous  methods  of  tillage  and  plant  protection 
liave   been    and    arc    in    vogue.       There    is    abundant 


262  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

evidence  to  prove  that  the  fault  lies  more  largelv 
with  the  tiller  of  the  soil  than  with  the  soil  itself. 

For  a  supply  of  the  mineral  constituents  of  plants, 
both  home  and  commercial  sources  are  open.  The 
home  supply  is  found  in  the  soil  and  the  refuse 
material  of  the  farm,  which  latter  may  be  augmented 
by  purchased  animal -foods.  Stress  should  first  be 
laid  on  conserving  the  mineral  elements  which  have 
once  entered  into  organic  substances,  for  such  matter, 
having  once  entered  into  plant  and  animal  life,  is 
<'asily  broken  down  and  made  available  for  succeeding 
life;  or.  in  other  words,  mineral  matter  which  has 
recently  been  made  available  and  used  by  plants 
may  be  nuule  re -available  more  easily  than  that  which 
has  never  been  used. 

The  next  thought  is  to  tickle  the  soil  with  tillage, 
and  see  if  it  will  laugh  with  fatness;  if  it  doe.>< 
not,  apply  something  which  will  awaken  it  more 
effectually.  If  by  the  use  of  comparatively  cheap 
substances,  as  lime  and  gypsum,  the  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  can  be  ousted  and  made  available  more 
cheaply  than  they  can  l)e  bought  for  the  land,  then 
these  cheap  substances  should  be  used,  for  they 
usually  not  only  set  free  plant -food,  but  also  improve 
the  physical  character  of  the  soil,  and  sometimes 
serve  as  regulators  of  soil  moisture. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  it  is  manifestly  im- 
])Ossible  for  every  farmer  to  have  the  soil  of  even 
a  single  field  analyzed;  jnuch  less  can  he  have  a 
chemical  determination  made  of  all  the  fields,  or 
i>ortioiis    of    fields,  of    the  farm,  and    ev«'n    could   this 


Farming    Like    Religion.  25 .'i 

be  accomplished,  the  difficult  problem  of  productivity 
would  be  only  partially  solved.  The  difficulties 
met  every  day  in  every  field  can  best  be  overcome 
by  increasing  the  farmer's  powers  of  observation, 
by  developing  his  judgment  and  by  supplying  him 
with  clear-cut  scientific  facts,  that  he  may  have  a 
basis  for  drawing  correct  conclusions  from  what  he 
observes.  In  farming,  as  in  religion,  salvation  is 
worked  out  through  personal  effort,  illumined  by 
knowledge,  and  directed  according  to  the  laws  or 
modes  of  action  which  govern  the  subject  inves- 
tigated. 

Since  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  leach  out  of 
good  soils  in  only  extremely  small  quantities,  it 
would  seem  at  first  thought  that  the  presence  of  a 
living  plant  would  not  be  necessary  to  conserve  them, 
as  in  the  case  of  nitrogen  ;  but  if  these  minerals 
have  been  made  available  by  tillage  or  by  amend- 
ments to  the  land,  and  if  they  are  not  used,  they 
tend  to  become  unavailable  again  as  time  passes. 
True,  while  the  natural  forces  are  tending  to  lock 
up  some  of  the  mineral  plant -food  which  has  been 
made  easily  available,  other  forces  may  be  liberat- 
ing plant-food  which  before  such  action  was  un- 
available. For  instance,  the  natural  forces  are  con- 
stantly active  in  breaking  down  rock,  sand  and 
organic  matter,  and  they  are  equally  active  in  con- 
serving or  locking  up  any  of  the  mineral  constitu- 
ents which  have  been  made  soluble.  Since  plant 
roots  set  free  or  make  soluble  the  available  min- 
erals,   cover    crops    should    be    used    extensively,    not 


'2r>4  Thf     Fcrfilifif    of   fin     hi,„1. 

only  tor  covering  and  shading  the  land,  but  for 
their  value  in  setting  free  the  mineral  constituents 
of  the  soil.  Where  ])ra(*ticable,  tap -rooted  plants 
should  be  used  for  this  purpose,  since  they  are  not 
only  as  active  in  liberating  plant-food  as  filirous- 
rooted  ones  are,  if  not  more  so,  but  they  also  bring 
food  from  the  subsoil  to  the  surface,  where  the  more 
exacting  fibrous -rooted  plants  may  use  it.  Tap- 
rooted  plants  also  tend  to  improve  the  sub-drainage 
of  tenacious  soils,  and  to  make  them  more  friable 
by  opening  up  channels  for  the  passage  of  air  and 
water  downward  and  moisture  upward,  when  their 
roots    have  decayed. 

Lime  may  not  only  change  the  j)hysical  condi- 
tions of  the  soil  foi'  the  Ix'ttei-  in  several  charac- 
teristic ways,  but  it  may  also  act  in  sudi  chemical 
ways  as  to  nuike  dormant  pliosphorus  and  jmtasli 
available.  Salt  and  some  other  sulistances  may  also 
act    in    similar    ways.      (See    Chapter    XIII.) 

A  quarter  of  a  century  since,  gypsum  was  largely 
used  in  the  central  states  with  marked  beneficial 
results.  In  later  years  its  use  has  decreased,  ])ccause 
there  is  less  potash  in  the  soil.  Farmers  have  taken 
the  potash  from  the  soil,  and  have  then  blamed  the 
gypsum,  instead  of  taking  themselves  to  task  for 
not    returning  some  of    the  potash. 

The  characteristic  action  of  gypsum  as  a  lib- 
erator of  plant -food  is  briefly  and  clearly  stated 
by  Aiknuin.*  "The  true  explanation  of  the  action 
of     gypsum     is     to    be     found     in     its    effect     on     the 

*  Mmuuri-'s  uud  Mkuuriui;,  463. 


Lime,   Gypsum,   Drains,   Moisture.  255 

double  silicates,  whii'li  it  decoinposes,  the  potash  be- 
ing set  free.  Its  action  is  similar  to  that  of  other 
lime  compounds,  only  more  characteristic.  As  a 
manure,  therefore,  its  action  is  indirect,  and  its  true 
function  is  to  oust  the  potash  from  its  compounds. 
Its  peculiarly  favorable  action  on  clover  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  clover  specially  benefits  by  potash, 
and  that  adding  gypsum  practically  amounts  to  add- 
ing potash.  Of  course,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  soil  must  contain  potash  compounds,  if 
gypsum  is  to  have  its  full  effect.  Now,  however, 
that  potash  salts  suitable  for  manuring  purposes  are 
abundant,  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  it  is  not 
better  to  apply  potash  directly.  Further,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  gypsum  is  applied  to  the  soil 
whenever  it  receives  a  dressing  of  superphosphate  of 
lime,  as  gypsum  is  one  of  the  products  formed  by 
treating  insoluble  phosphate  of  lime  with  sulfuri<- 
acid." 

He  who  utilizes,  as  conditions  will  permit,  lime, 
gypsum,  salt,  plants,  drains,  manures  and  extra  till- 
age, may  still  find  that  the  land  is  not  as  fi'uitful  as 
it  should  be,  because  of  insufficient  mineral  matter. 
Unsatisfactory  results  ma}'  be,  and  in  a  large  major- 
ity of  cases  are,  due  to  a  lack  of  full  and  continu- 
ous supply  of  moisture,  and  this  being  so,  it  would 
be  manifestly  unwise  to  purchase  plant -food,  when 
that  already  available  is  not  fully  utilized  for  lack  of 
ample  transportation  facilities.  In  all  cases,  pains 
should  be  taken  to  discover  just  w'hat  is  lacking, — 
moisture   or  plant -food.     If    the    latter,   and    if    an  in- 


266  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

telligent  eflfort  has  been  made  to  utilize  the  natural 
and  home  resoures,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  in 
purchasing  freely  to  make  up  the  deficiency.  Para- 
doxical as  it  may  appear,  those  farmers  who  make 
the  best  use  of  the  home  and  natural  supply  of  plant- 
food  are  the  ones  who  purchase  commercial  fertilizers 
most  freely  and  mostly  profitably. 

COMPARISON     OF    NATIVE    SOILS     WITH     THOSE     CULTI- 
VATED    FOK     SEVERAL     YEARS. 

The  following  quotations  are  taken  from  investi- 
gations made  by  Harry  Snyder,  chemist  of  the 
Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletins 
.'JO  and  41.  These  publications  are  well  worth  a 
most  careful  perusal: 

"The  Red  River  Valley  native  soils,"  he  writes, 
"contain  from  .35  to  .40  of  a  per  cent  of  nitrogen, 
while  the  soils  that  have  been  under  continuous 
(iultivation  for  twelve  to  fifteen  years  contain  from 
.2  to  .3  of  a  per  cent." 

Presumably  the  cultivated  soils  had  been  tilled 
without  any  intervening  nitrogen  or  humus- produc- 
ing crops.  Allowing  that  an  acre  of  soil,  one  foot 
deej),  weighs  1,800  tons,*  the  native  soil  would  con- 
tain   from    12,600    to    14,400    pounds   of   nitrogen    per 

*The  assumed  weight  of  iin  acre  of  soil  is  slightly  greater  than  the 
weights  reported  in  the  two  bulletins  alwve  named  (in  a  majority  of  cases', 
but  is  less  in  some  cases.  Most  plants  serure  some  of  their  food  from 
greater  depths  than  one  foot;  therefore,  for  the  purposes  of  comparison  anit 
illustration,  the  assumed  weight  of  an  acre  of  soil  one  foot  deep  is  sufli- 
clently  correct. 


Squandering   of  Nitrogen.  257 

acre  of  native  soil  one  foot  deep,  while  the  culti- 
vated soil  would  contain  from  7,200  to  10,800 
pounds  per  acre.  If  the  average  amount  of  nitrogen 
in  the  native  soils  (13,500  pounds  per  acre),  and 
the  average  in  the  soil  after  it  had  Ix'en  cropped 
twelve  to  fifteen  jears  (9,000  pounds  pei-  aci-c),  are 
compared,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  soil  has  lost  4,500 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  or  more  than  one-third  (])ossibly 
one -half)  of  the  nitrogen  which  could  well  l)e  made 
available. 

The  suicidal  practice  of  robbing  the  richest  of 
soils  by  continuous  production  of  wheat,  sold  at  from 
50  to  GO  cents  a  bushel,  limits  the  occupancy  of 
this  land  to  forty -five  years,  unless  radical  changes 
are  instituted.  Through  present  need  or  present 
greed,  the  American  is  squanderiug  his  valuable 
landed  estates  as  a  dissolute  son  s(iuanders  his  in- 
heritance. Fifteen  crops  of  wheat  of  twenty -five 
bushels  per  acre  require  525  pounds  of  nitrogen,  or 
one -eighth  of  the  amount  which  the  soil  lost  during 
the  twelve  or  fifteen  years  of  cropping.  This  soil 
has  been  so  badly  managed  that  it  has  lost  out- 
right nitrogen  sufficient  for  120  crops,  each  requir- 
ing as  much  nitrogen  as  a  crop  of  tAventy-five 
bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  does.  In  addition  to 
this,  all  of  the  525  pounds  of  nitrogen  carried  off 
by  the  wheat  was  sold  at  the  railway  station,  never 
to  return.  When  the  amount  wasted  on  a  single 
acre  is  multiplied  by  the  acres  of  the  vast  fertile 
wheat  plains  of  the  west,  the  loss  of  nitrogen  to 
our   country  is  seen   to   be   so    great   as   to  appall  the 


2M  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

thoughtful  man  who  looks  forward  to  the  genera- 
tions who  will  want  this  element  in  the  not  distant 
future. 

"In  the  uncultivated  soils  there  is  usually  about 
5  per  cent  of  humus,  while  in  the  cultivated  soils 
there  is  usually  less  than  3  per  cent.  The  humus 
is  very  rich  in  nitrogen,  the  important  building  ma- 
terial out  of  which  the  gluten  in  wheat  and  grains 
is  constructed;  and  when  the  humus  decreases  the 
nitrogen  decreases  as  well,  and  is  lost  from  the  soil 

"The  effects  of  the  humus  on  the  capacity  of  the 
soil  to  retain  its  water  and  withstand  the  evil  effects 
of  drought  are  marked;  the  native  soils  will  retain 
about  20  per  cent  more  water  than  the  long  culti- 
vated soils,  and  will  not  dry  out  as  readily  during 
the  droughty  seasons  as  the  older  and  long  culti- 
vated soils.  Another  important  point:  when  th«' 
humus  is  taken  out  of  the  native  .soils,  during  the 
process  of  analysis,  from  .06  to  .08  of  a  per  cent 
of  phosphoric  acid  is  soluble  and  associated  with  it; 
while  only  about  .02  of  a  per  cent  is  in  this  form 
with  the  long  cultivated  soils.  Phosphoric  acid  in 
this  form  is  very  valuable  as  plant -food.  There  is 
a  good  supply  of  phosphates  in  all  of  these  soils, 
but  we  must  keep  up  the  sui)ply  of  humus  in  order 
to  keep  the  phosphates  available. 

"In  the  analyses  reported,  the  average  amount  of 
potash  is  given  as  about  one -half  of  1  per  cent. 
This  is  not  the  total  potash  that  is  in  these  soils; 
in  fact  there  is  about  1%  of  a  per  cent  in  all,  bat 
1%    per    cent,  or   over   two -thirds   of   the    total,  can- 


Unavailahle    Potash .  259 

uot  be  counted  upon  for  crop  purposes,  Ixn-ause  it 
is  combined  with  silica  (sand)  in  the  form  of  minute 
stony  particles,  that  require  the  strongest  chemicals 
and  the  highest  heat  that  can  be  procured  in  the 
laboratory  to  decompose  them." 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  great  value  of  humus 
resides  not  only  in  its  increasing  of  the  moisture- 
holding  capacity  of  the  land,  but  in  its  power  of  lib- 
erating phosphoric  acid.  While  the  land  contains  an 
unusual  supply  of  potash,  this  material  is  present  in 
such  forms  that  the  greater  part  of  it  cannot  be  made 
available  to  plants,  at  least  not  in  the  near  future. 


CHAPTER  Xn. 


COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS. 


The  use  of  eorninerciHl  fertilizers  has  increased  so 
rapidly  during  the  hist  thii-ty-fivc  years  tliat  tlieii- 
manufacture,  sale  and  vahie  in  ii<,M-i(Miltui-e  have  l>e- 
conie  of  national  importance.  From  small  and  crude 
beginnings  prior  to  LSfiO,  at  which  date  there  were 
but  forty-seven  small  t'ei-tilizer  establishments  in  the 
United  States,  with  an  output  valued  at  $S!)1.;{44. 
the  estal)lishments  had  increased,  by  1SS!».  to  :{!)(). 
and  the  value  of  the  output  to  $.'{!),  180,844  at 
wholesale.* 


STAT'STK  S    OK    FKKTI  LIZEKS. 


Establishments.. 
Hands  emjiloyed. 

Capital 

Wapes 

Materials 

Products  


lKf)0.  l><7n. 

Industry      mid  Industry    iiinl 

weidth,  eitili'li  wealtli.iiinlli 

census.  oensus. 


1«70. 
Value  of  tli«>  fcrlili- 
7.prs  in  tlms*'  st.-ites 
which  niaiiufiu'- 
turcd  nmrc  thitn 
$.")<K),(HM>  \v<irlli. 


47  I'JC.  IVnna.  $1, (■.:!.'.. L'04 

:i()8  2,501  N.  ,).  . .       (Uil.C..")!) 

,$4Gf..0()()  $4,395,948  Mass...       W7,700 

95,01<i  7(Jt),712  yU\ tW2,.152 

.590.81 «  3,808,025 

891,344  5.815,118 


»  United  States  Census  Rejwrt.  1890      Tlie  tal)les  set   fi>rth  briefly  the  ({rowth 
of  the  fertilizer  industry  by  decades   durinif  the  thirty  years   prior   to  1S90. 

(260) 


Statififirs    of   Ferfilizfrfi. 


261 


1880. 

Statistics  of 

roaniif  act's 

tenth    cen- 

sus.Vol.Il. 

3(i4 

1890. 
Marmfactu'g 
industrie  s  , 
elev'th  cen- 
sus, Part  1. 

:{90 

Value  of  thf>  fertilizers  in  those 
states  which  manufactured  more 
than  .$.")(K),()(IO  worth. 

States. 

1880. 
$5,770,198 

1890. 

Establ'hm'ts 

Md 

.$6,208,025 

Hands  emp'd 

8,598 

10,158 

N.  Y 

3.1.50.312 

3,498,291 

Capital   

$n,913,()G0 

$40,.594,lf)8 

s.  c 

2,r.91,0.53 

4,417,6.58 

\Vaf,'os 

2,r,48,422 

4,r,71,831 

N.  J 

2,423,805 

4,319,088 

Material 

15,595,078 

25.1i:t.874 

Mass 

2.104.080 

1.910.920 

Products 

23,650,795 

39.180.844 

I'eniia.  .. 
Ind 

1.4.33.245 
980,725 

2,957.316 

Ill 

729,400 

924,7.58 

Del 

675. 2.50 

1.018,4.38 

Va 

624,300 

2,475,6.38 

Ohio 

.531,540 

1.287,101 

Ga 

5.026.034 

N.  (" 

994.135 

Ala 

765.000 

Mich  .... 

7.53.. 585 

The  American  farmers  have  i)ai(l  out  for  commer- 
cial fertilizers,  duriiif?  tlie  last  thirty -six  years,  more 
than  eight  liundred  million  dollars,  an  amount  equal 
to  the  value  of  the  entire  wheat  crop  of  the  United 
States  for  the  last  three  years.  The  question  natu- 
rally arises,  was  this  money,  in  part  or  as  a  whole, 
wisely  and  profitably  invested  ?  If  this  vast  amount 
is  expended  for  plant-food  before  the  arable  land 
has  been  under  cultivation  three -fourths  of  a  cen- 
tury, on  an  average,  and  when,  as  yet,  nineteen  states 
and  territories,  embracing  more  than  one -half  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  Union,  use  little  or  no  commercial 
fertilizers,  what  sum  will  suffice  for  imrchasing  plant- 
food  when  all  the  aral)le  land  has  ])een  croii]ied 
for    two    or    three    hundred    vears  ?        Will   our    nation 


262  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

die  in  time,  as  many  others  have  in  the  past,  hr- 
cause  the  land  will  fail  to  produce  sufficient  varieties 
and  quantities  of  first-class  foods  to  keep  the  whoh' 
population  on  a  highly  civilized  plane  1  The  variety 
and  quality  of  the  foods  used  by  a  people  will  in 
time  determine,  more  than  any  other  one  thing,  the 
height  of  civilization  or  the  depth  of  semi -bar- 
barism which  the  nation  will  reach.  When  we  con- 
sider the  rise  and  fall  of  nations  in  the  past,  and 
look  upon  the  abject  i)overty,  the  hunger  and  suffer- 
ing, the  lack  of  a  competence  and  leisure,  and  the 
utter  dearth  of  innocent  luxuries  which  fall  to  the 
lot  of  more  than  one -half  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Old  World,  we  naturally  seek  for  the  cause  or  causes 
which  have  produced  these  conditions.  The  elements 
of  food,  clothing  and  a  competence  are  found  pri- 
marily in  the  soil;  if  these  elements  remain  inert,  or 
are  depleted  through  ignorance  or  carelessness,  no 
abiding  prosperity  can  be  expected. 

Is  this  favored  nation  to  follow  in  the  footsteps 
of  many  othei-s,  and  shall  we  "look  on  with  stoical 
indifference  while  the  fertile  valleys,  the  extended 
plains  and  the  wood -('lad  foot-hills  are  slowly  but 
surely  being  transformed  into  eroded,  semi -barren 
and  weed -covered  wastes?  Are  the  forty  to  sixty 
millions  of  dollars  now  "paid  out  annually  for  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  after  less  than  seventy-five  years" 
occupancy  of  the  land,  an  indication  of  advance-, 
ment  or  retrogression  ?  How  much  of  the  fer- 
tilizer used  is  applied  to  badly  tilled  land  which, 
under  good  tillage,  would   produce   satisfactorily  with- 


Civilization   and    Productivity.  263 

out  fertilizers  ?  Has  the  expenditure  of  forty  mil- 
lions of  dollars  yearly  for  commercial  fertilizers  by 
some  twenty  states  noticeably  increased  the  average 
yield  in  these  states,  or  only  served  to  keep  it  from 
falling  below  the  average  of  early  years  ?  In  what 
direction  does  the  road  which  the  American  farmer 
is  now  traveling  lead,  —  to  greater  or  less  productivity 
of  soil  ?  Will  the  methods  now  pursued  make  it 
possible  at  the  end  of  the  twentieth  century  for 
every  honest,  temperate  and  industrious  man  or  wo- 
man to  earn  each  day  enough  to  supply  the  neces- 
sities of  life  and  a  modest  surplus, — conditions  which 
may  now  be  reached  by  nearh"  all  able-bodied  farmers 
in  America?  All  these  questions  are  worth  thought- 
ful consideration,  though  no  one  may  be  able  to  an- 
swer them  definitely. 

It  will  be  seen  how  far-reaching  the  subject  of 
commercial  fertilizers  and  continued  productivity  of 
the  land  becomes  when  viewed  in  the  light  of  the 
past,  and  Avith  regard  to  the  welfare  of  the  future 
of  our  country.  It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  by 
using  a  given  amount  of  fertilizers  <mi  a  given  area 
there  will  be  an  increase  of  crop,  oi-  that  such  an 
application  will  be  profitable.  To  ti-eat  the  subject 
from  this  mole- like,  immediate -profit  point  of  view, 
is  to  lose  sight  of  the  real  problem  to  be  discussed 
and  solved.  The  real  question  is,  how  to  use  the 
land  most  wisely,  how  most  economically  to  produce 
high -classes  of  food  for  the  eater,  an  extended  va- 
riety of  cheap  food  for  the  consumer  while  insur- 
ing    a    profit    to     the     producer,  and    an    increase    in 


264  The   Fertility   of  fhr    Tjind. 

the  productivity  of  the  land.  We  who  have  secured 
our  farms  from  an  over- kind  government  at  a  mini- 
mum of  cost  have  no  right  to  use  the  soil  simply 
for  the  sustenance  of  the  present  generation,  and 
hand  it  over  to  future  generations  with  no  thought 
of   their  welfare. 


GENERAL    REMARKS    UPON     THE    USE   OF   COMMERCIAL 
FERTILIZERS. 

The  productivity  of  the  land  used  for  the  grow- 
ing of  field  crops  cannot  be  indefinitely  maintained 
without  tlu^  apj)]icati()n  of  some  of  the  mineral  ele- 
ments of  plant  growth.  To  determine  the  period 
wluMi  it  is  l)est  to  substitute,  in  part,  additional 
I)laiit-food  for  additional  tillage,  is  not  simple,  neither 
is  it  always  ea.sy  to  determine  the  amounts  and 
kinds  of  plant-food  which  it  is  wisest  to  ajjply. 
The  experience  of  every  farmer  who  has  grown  a 
clover  or  other  leguminous  crop  will  lead  him  to 
the  con(!lusion  that  the  one  high-priced  element  of 
plant -food,  nitrogen,  is  the  one  that  is  most  easily 
and  cheaply  procured.  This  fact  simplifies  the  prob- 
lem of  maintaining  j^roduetivity.  as  governed  by  one 
element,    in    many    portions    of    the  country. 

Questioning  the  soil  as  to  its  mineral  constitu- 
ents would  not  be  difficult,  if  a  practicable  method 
for  cheaply  determining  the  availability  of  the  potash, 
phosphoric  acid  aiul  lime,  and  their  various  combi- 
nations in  the  soil,  had  been  discovered.  Here,  as 
in    so    manv    other    instances,    the    chemist    and    the 


Multiplicatian   of  Brands.  265 

farmer  must  join  hands  and  work  together,  one. 
with  crucible  and  retoi-t.  tlie  other  with  plow  and 
plant.  From  now  on  the  plow -share  must  be 
kept  hot,  and  the  farmer  must  be  alert,  that  he 
may  take  advantage  of  every  new  discovery  of  the 
student. 

From  a  few  brands  of  natural  and  manufactured 
fertilizers,  the  number  of  mixtures  has  grown  to  be- 
wildering proportions.  The  New  Yoi-k  State  Experi- 
ment Station  (at  Geneva,  X.  Y.)  registered  in  189G, 
up  to  November  20,  126  manufactories  and  1,112  sep- 
arate and  distinct  brands  of  fertilizers.  It  would  be 
uncharitable  to  suppose  that  this  nuiltiplication  of 
brands  is  intended  to  confuse  the  farmer,  yet  this  is 
the  result.  If  a  suital)le  fee  were  required  of  the 
manufacturer  for  each  brand  of  fertilizer  sold  in  New 
York  (see  fourth  column  in  Table  LXXX.).  it  would 
not  only  tend  to  reduce  the  multiplication  of  them, 
but,  if  wisely  expended,  would  produce  a  fund  suffi- 
cient to  guard  the  rights  of  the  purchaser  and  the 
conscientious  manufacturer.  True,  the  fee,  or  the 
greater  part  of  it,  would  eventually  be  paid  by  the 
user,  but  he  would  willingly  bear  such  additional  ex- 
pense could  he  be  assured  that  he  received  just 
what  he  paid  for.  Then,  too,  he  has  a  right  to  a 
guarantee  of  the  composition  and  weight  of  each 
sack  or  package,  set  forth  in  terms  so  plain  that 
he  will  not  be  compelled  to  employ  an  interpreter 
to    reveal   the    meaning    of   the    terms    used. 

Abstracts  of  the  laws  for  the  regulation  of  the 
fertilizer  trade  in  the  various  states  are  given  below: 


206 


Thf    Fertility  of  the    Land. 


Arizona. 

California. 

Colorado. 

Idaho. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 

Minnesota. 

Montana. 

Nebraska. 

Nevada. 

Now  Mexico. 

North  Dakota. 

Oklahoma. 

Oregon. 

South  Dakota. 

Texas. 

Utah. 

Washington. 

Wvoming. 


Aiuhania. 

Connecticut. 

Delaware. 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 

Kentucky. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan. 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

New  Hampshire. 

New  Jersey. 

New  York. 

North  Carolina. 

Ohio. 

Pennsylvania. 

Rhode  Island. 

South  Carolina. 

Tennesst'o. 

Vermont. 

Virginia. 

West  Virginia. 

Wisconsin. 


TABLE  Lxw.— Abstracts  of  fertili- 


- x>  az  o  «  < 


•-  o  c 

-'  1 


Connecticut  $10.00 

Maine,     for 

PjOj 10.00 

NorKiO.       .-).Ool 

Massachu- 
setts       .').oo' 

Rhode     Isl-  | 

and fi.oo 

West      Vir-  j 

ginia 10.00 


o  ■  c 
e.S  K 

C    «    b 


Delaware  . 

Illinois  . . . 

Indiana . . . 

Kentucky . 

Maryland. 

Michigan  . 

Mississipp 

Missouri.  . 

NewJersey 

Ohio 

Pennsylv'a 

Virginia  ex 
cess  of    10 
l)rands.  ea. 

Wisconsin. 


fJO.on 
20.00 
2.00 
l.-).00 
1.1.00 
20.00 
15.00 
10.00 
15.00 
20.00 
10.00 


10.00 
'20.00 
2.'i.00 
.->0.00 


state   Regulations. 


267 


zer  laws  of  different  states. 


a  -^  a 


New  Hamp-  Florida 

shire $r)0.no]  Georgia 


Vprmont...l00.00 
Virginia, 10 

brands  or 

less 100.00 


North  Car- 
olina   

South  Car- 
olina   

Tennessee 


50 


«  V. 


5l 


2-^   Alabama /$100.00  too  yrs. 

]Q  1^  imprisonment. 

i  Connecticut $100.00  to  $200.00 

25   Delaware 200.00  "    300.00 

J  Florida 500.00  "  1,000.00 

25   (Jeoreia  -^   Punished      as 

^     i    misdemeanor. 

Illinois $200.00  to  $500.00 

Indiana 50.00"    100.00 

Kentucky 100.00"    500.00 

Maine 100.00  "    200.00 

Maryland 100.00  "    200.00 

Massacbussetts  . . .     50.00   "    100.00 

Michigan 100.00  "    300.00 

r  Forfeiture    and 
■  \        damages. 
Missouri $100.00  to  $200.00 


Mississippi 


New  Hampshire  . .  500.00 

New  Jersey .50.00  to    100.00 

New  York 100.00 

North  Carolina.  .  . .      per  bag,     10.00 

Ohio 200.00  to    .500.00 

Pennsylvania 25.00"    200.00 

Rhode  Island .50.00"     100.00 

(    Not  to  exceed 
\  $1,000.00 

Tennessee $50.00  to    100.00 

Vermont   50.00"    100.00 

Virginia 1,000.00 

West  Virginia 10.00"     100.00 

Wisconsin  100.00  "    200.00 


South  Carolina . . 


268  Thfi    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked,  (^an  the  farmer 
afTord  to  use  commereial  fertilizers  ?  From  the  facts 
presented  in  previous  ehapters,  the  ron(^lusion  is  in- 
evitably reached  that  only  l)y  painstaking  observation 
of  all  the  factors  which  effect  increased  production, 
coupled  with  actual  tests  of  fertilizers  in  the  fielc 
by  persons  who  are  willing  to  make  a  somewhat 
careful  study  of  the  conditions  present,  can  the  (|ucs- 
tion  be  answered  with  any  degree  of  accura<'y. 

If  a  given  (luantity  of  fertilizers  l)e  applied  to 
imperfectly  fitted  land  and  the  result  is  profitable, 
is  it  any  indicati<ui  that  e<jually  good  results  might 
not  have  been  reached  without  fertilizers  had  l)etter 
tillage  ])ccn  given?  Too  frcfiucntly,  fertilizers  are 
made  to  take  the  place  of  tilliige,  when  they  should 
be  used  to  supplement  it.  That  is,  fei-tilizers  jire 
most  likely  to  i)roduce  i)rofitable  results  when  con 
joined  with  superior  physical  conditions  of  soil. 
The  appropriate  quantities  and  kinds  can  only  be 
determined  by  actual  investigation,  and  by  using  vai-i- 
ous  mixtures  of  known  composition.  Instead  of  \n\v- 
chasing  several  brands  of  fertilizers  to  secure  i-eia- 
tively  larger  or  smaller  amounts  of  nitrogen.  i)hos- 
phorie  acid  and  i)otash,  it  is  usually  best  to  \n\v- 
chase  these  substances  sei)arately,  of  reliable  dealeis. 
whose  guarantee  can  be  trusted,  and  mix  them  in 
such  proportions  as  experience  shows  to  be  best. 
It  is  usually  more  economical  to  purchase  high-grade 
than  low-grade  products,  since  the  soil  usually  con- 
tains enough  low-grade  plant -food,  and  since  some- 
thing   is    saved    in    packages    and    transportation,   and 


Un.srienfifir    Use    of  Fertilizers.  269 

labor  of  applyiiij^-  them.  In  the  purchase  of  high- 
grade  products,  there  is  the  satisfaction  of  securing 
what  is  wanted,  without  purchasing  and  liandling 
what  is  not  wanted. 

It  is  sometimes  asserted  that  commendal  fertil- 
izers tend  to  deplete  the  soil,  and  there  is  some 
truth  in  this  notion  Avlien  they  are  used  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  Not  iufreciuently  it  occurs  that  an 
application  of  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  pounds 
of  commercial  fertilizers  per  acre  increases  the  yield 
five  to  fifteen  bushels  of  wheat,  and  in  some  cases 
such  application  makes  the  difference  between  a 
failure  and  a  fairly  full  crop,  so  marked  are  the 
bcut'ficial  effects  of  fertilizers  on  some  soils.  But 
unless  sonu;  measures  are  taken  to  unlock  the  ele- 
ments in  the  soil  by  extra  tillage,  i)rovi(led  the  soil 
contains  an  abundance  of  tough  plant -food,  or  living 
l^lants  or  manures,  or  both,  be  used  to  reinforce  the 
land,  diminished  productivity  must  come  on  more 
rapidly  than  it  would  have  done  if  no  fertilizers  had 
been  used.  The  unscientific  use  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers has  led  many  a  farmer  to  conclude  that  they 
injure  the  land  by  reason  of  their  "stimulating" 
effect.  Observation  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
in  many  cases  the  yield  of  grain  steadily  diminished 
where  only  a  few  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of  fer- 
tilizeivs  were  used  and  the  old  methods  of  tillage 
and  treatment  of  the  land  continued,  and  the  effect 
of  the  fertilizers  was  likened  to  the  effect  of  alcohol 
on  the  confirmed  toper;  but  to  stop  meant  collapse, 
and  to  go  on  implied  constantly  increased  use. 


270  The    Pert  Hit  if  of  the    Land. 

Commercial  fertilizers  do  uot  stimulate  plant 
growth,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  commonly 
used.  They  do  stimulate  by  furnishing  true  nourish- 
ment; then  how  can  the  observed  effect  be  explained? 
It  is  well  known  that  plants  frequently  suffer  from 
lack  of  a  full  supply  of  food  at  the  critical  period  of 
their  growth.  When  they  have  used  the  easily  avail- 
able food  stored  in  the  seed,  but  have  not  yet  had 
time  to  form  roots  sufficiently  numerous  to  secure  a 
full  supply  of  nourishment  from  that  which  is  less 
available  in  the  soil,  the  addition  of  easily  available 
concentrated  nourishment  is  of  the  greatest  value. 
Most  land  is  so  imperfectly  fitted  for  the  highest 
welfare  of  plants  that  unless  a  small  amount  of 
tender  plant-food  be  placed  in  juxtaposition  to  the 
seed,  growth  languishes  until  the  plant  has  extended 
and  multiplied  its  roots  sufficiently  to  secure  a  sup- 
ply of  nourishment  from  the  tough  and  less  con- 
centrated constituents  stored  in  the  soil.  If,  then, 
some  easily  available  nourishment  is  at  hand  to  sus- 
tain the  plant,  and  keep  it  in  full  vigor  during  the 
transition  from  seed  to  soil,  it  is  evident  that  a 
larger  crop  will  be  secured  than  would  have  been 
obtained  if  no  additional  nourishment  had  been 
furnished;  and  this  quick  start,  when  compared  with 
unfertilized  plants,  appears  to  the  farmer  to  be  a 
stimulation. 

The  amount  of  valuable  elements  removed  from 
the  soil  by  the  increased  yield,  due  to  the  action  of 
the  fertilizer,  is  sometimes  greater  than  the  amount 
of    these    elements    added    by  the    fertilizer;    thus    the 


Judicious    Ihe    of  Fertilizers.  271 

drain  upon  the  soil  is  greater  than  it  would  have 
been  had  no  fertilizer  been  applied.  Notwithstanding 
this,  the  application  of  small  amounts  of  high-grade 
fertilizers  is  not  only  rational,  but  usually  profitable, 
if  used  in  conjunction  with  cover  crops,  barn  manure 
and  intelligent  rotation.  Nevertheless,  their  use 
alone  too  often  assists  in  depleting  the  soil  of  its 
fertility  to  the  point  where  profitable  tillage  ceases, 
and  if  the  practice  of  using  only  small  amounts  of 
fertilizers  is  continued  it  may,  as  shown  above, 
accelerate  soil  depletion.  The  productivity  of  the 
land  may  be,  and  often  is,  maintained  and  even  in- 
creased by  the  intelligent  application  of  liberal 
amounts  of  fertilizers  in  connection  with  a  judicious 
rotation  and  wisdom  in  farm -management. 

It  is  believed  that  the  beneficial  effects  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  due  as  much  to  the  timely 
supply  as  to  the  amount  of  nourishment  they  con- 
tain. This  timely  supply  enables  the  plants  to  en- 
large their  root  system,  whereby  they  are  able  to 
secure  more  nourishment  from  the  soil  over  and 
above  that  furnished  by  the  fertilizers,  than  they 
could  have  secured  without  such  supply.  If  this  be 
so,  it  is  seen  again  that  the  use  of  fertilizers  in 
small  quantities  may  not  only  largely  increase  the 
yield  of  crops,  but  may  also  serve  to  deplete  the 
soil  of  some  of  its  elements  of  plant -food  more 
rapidly  than  would  th^  same  kind  of  crops  and 
treatment   without   their   use. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  complete 
fertilizers,  that  is,  those  which  contain  nitrogen,  phos- 


272  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

phoric  acid  and  potash  in  tlu^  proportions  found  in 
the  plants  to  be  grown.  But  plants  vary  widely  in 
amounts  and  proportions  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash;  the  variations  are  due  to  many  causes, 
such  as  an  abundance  or  la<*k  of  moisture,  sunshine, 
and  inherited  power  of  the  plants.  Then,  too,  the  soil 
varies  more  widely  in  the  i>ercentage  of  plant -food 
and  its  availability  than  the  jilants  do.  Usually  it  is 
desirable  to  increase  tlu'  leaves  and  stalks, — the  vege- 
tative system, — of  i)lants  intended  simply  for  forage; 
this  can  be  done  l)y  supplying  them  with  an  abun- 
dance of  nitrogen,  while  the  |)r<Kluction  of  grain  and 
some  tubers  and  roots  is  l)est  secured  by  using  mod- 
erate quantities  of  nitrogen  and  liberal  quantities  of 
available  phosphori<*  a<M(l  and  i)otasli. 

Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  determine  the 
limit  to  the  prolitable  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 
Manifestly  no  definite  conclusions  can  V>e  reached 
which  may  serve  for  general  apj)lication.  If  the  in- 
vestigations be  carried  on  with  a  single  crop,  as 
wheat,  for  a  long  series  of  years,  the  soil  liecoines  ab- 
normal, since  twenty  to  forty  years'  continuous  wheat 
culture,  as  comlucted  by  Lawes  and  (Till)ert.  dei)letes 
the  soil  of  its  humus,  and  hence  of  its  power  to  hold 
moisture  and  to  set  free  i)hosphoric  acid.  Then,  too, 
no  account  is  taken,  usually,  of  the  amount  and  avail- 
ability of  the  stores  of  plant -food  already  in  the  soil. 
For  instance,  if  mineral  fertilizers  alone  be  used  and 
but  slight  increase  is  secured,  the  mitural  conclusion 
would  be  that  thcj-e  was  as  much  mineral  matter 
present  as  the  plants  could    utilize,  or  that  they  could 


Question    the    Soil.  273 

not  avail  themselves  of  it  because  of  a  lack  of  mois- 
ture or  some  necessary  element  or  elenjents;  but  such 
investigation  does  not  reveal  positively  the  real  cause 
of  low  production.  If  a  complete  fertilizer  is  used, 
no  matter  whether  such  application  is  profitable  or 
unprofitable,  the  problem  still  remains  unsolved,  for 
a  fertilizer  w^hich  contains  relatively  little  mineral 
matter  and  a  liberal  amount  of  nitrogen,  as  compared 
with  a  complete  fertilizer,  might  give  profitable  in- 
crease, as  has  hap])ened  in  some  of  the  experiments 
conducted  in  this  country  and  Europe  ;  yet  no  genei-al 
rule  is  revealed. 


SOME     SPECIFIC     ADVICE    AS    TO    FERTILIZERS    AND 
CROPS. 

There  appears  to  be  no  w'ay  to  find  a  universal 
rule  to  guide  the  farmer  as  to  the  kinds  or  quantities 
of  commercial  fertilizers  which  are  likely  to  produce 
the  greatest  profitable  results.  A  law  does  appear 
which  is  of  very  general  application,  namely,  the 
higher  the  price  realized  for  the  products  raised,  the 
more  liberal  the  application  may  be  without  exceeding 
the  limit  of  profit.  There  seems  to  be  no  alternative 
but  to  again  send  the  farmer  to  the  field,  and  ad- 
monish him  to  make  the  plants  comfortable  by  tillage 
and  by  the  best  possible  use  of  the  elements  in  the 
soil,  and  to  keep  a  fairly  tight  grip  on  the  phosphate 
sack  until  he  has  questioned  the  soil  and  the  plants, 
and  has  received  their  answers.  He  must  experi- 
ment  for   himself. 

S 


274  The    Fertility    of  ihe    hind. 

It,  therefore,  requires  judgment  aiul  some  exp<- 
rienee  to  know  when  and  where  to  apply  commer- 
cial fertilizers  to  the  best  advantajje.  If  the  effects 
of  commercial  fertilizers,  when  applied  intelligently, 
are  noted,  it  will  l)e  observed  that  they  usually 
produce  beneficial  results  by  furnishing  easily  avail- 
able nourishment  to  tlje  plants  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  their  growth,  as  already  explained;  therefore  it 
is  advisable  to  distribute  them  in  the  soil  near  the 
seeds,  that  nourishment  may  be  at  hand  in  suffi- 
cient abundance  to  give  the  young  plants  a  vigor- 
ous   and    liealthy    start    in    life. 

If  liberal  applications  of  nitrogen  are  made,  as 
for  instance,  to  winter  wheat  and  fruit  plantations, 
in  September,  they  may  produce  such  rapid  and 
sappy  growth  as  to  endanger  the  plants.  Rust  or 
damage  from  <;old  weather  fretpiently  occur  when 
plants  have  made  a  late  and  immature  growth.  In 
the  case  of  wheat  and  some  other  crops,  it  may  be 
well  to  withhold  a  part  or  all  of  the  nitrogen  in  the 
fall,  or  make  an  application  of  somewhat  slow -acting 
organic  nitrogen,  as  cotton -seed  meal.  Plants  often 
suffer  seriously  for  want  of  available  nitrogen  when 
they  are  recovering  from  the  injury  of  winter  ex- 
posure. Quick-acting  nitrogen,  such  as  nitrat<?  of 
soda,  is  especially  beneticial  in  assisting  them  to  a 
strong,  early  start.  Later  in  the  season,  when  ni- 
trification is  active,  they  may  get  their  supply  nor- 
mally from  the  soil. 

Some  soils  respond  to  applications  of  commercial 
fertilizers    far    more    satisfactorily    than    others.      Whv 


Use    and    Non-Use    of   Fn'filizfrs.  27 "> 

this  is  so  is  difficult  to  explain.  Sometimes  the  soil 
has  become  too  acid,  as  shown  by  the  investiga- 
tions of  the  Rhode  Island  Plxpcriment  Station  (see 
('hapter  XIII.);  in  other  cases  the  causes  which 
l)roduce  the  widely  different  results  are  wholly  ob- 
scure. On  both  sides  of  the  head  of  (Jayuga  Lake, 
in  New  York,  and  for  some  distance  to  the  south- 
ward, only  small  amounts  of  fertilizers  are  used, 
while  to  the  northward  of  this  distri(;t  they  are 
used  liberally  and  with  markedly  beneficial  results.  It 
would  naturally  be  supposed  that  the  first -named 
district  would  be  the  one  to  be  most  benefited, 
since  the  natural  fertility  of  the  land  is  far  in- 
ferior to  that  of  the  district  lying  to  the  north  of 
it.  Mauy  tests  of  fertilizers  have  been  made  in  the 
southern  district  with  and  without  applications  of 
lime,  and  only  in  rare  cases  increased  yield  has  justi- 
fied such  application.  In  the  northern  districts  sev- 
eral carloads  of  fertilizers  are  sold  annually  at  each 
of  the  little  villages  on  the  lines  of  railways,  while  in 
the  southern  a  very  few  carloads  serve  for  a  wide 
extent  of  territory.  In  making  a  survey  of  some 
of  the  middle  states,  it  is  found  that  in  certain  sec- 
tions fertilizers  are  in  common  use,  while  in  others 
they  are  used  sparingly  or  not  at  all. 

When  inquiry  is  made  as  to  the  cause  of  use  or 
non-use  of  fertilizers,  the  answer  in  one  section  is, 
"It  pays,  and  therefore  I  cannot  afford  to  do  with- 
out them";  in  the  other,  "It  does  not  pay,  and  there- 
fore I  cannot  afford  it."  Usually  the  first  answer 
comes  from  farmers  who  till   soils  which  are  naturally 


276  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

adapted  to  a  vigorous  growth  of  a  wide  range  of 
plants.  True,  the  people  who  farm  the  better  lands 
are,  as  a  rule,  more  progressive  than  those  are  who 
farm  the  poorer  lands,  but  this  does  not  fully  ex- 
plain why  fertilizers  are  used  liberally  in  one  lo<-ality 
and  sparingly  in  another.  VVhere  land  is  expensiv*' 
and  near  good  markets,  soils  which  were  nafnrally 
poor  have  Ihh'u  brought  to  a  high  state  of  pro- 
duction   largely    l)y  the  aid  of   manures. 

Since  barn  manures  are  bulky  and  expensive  to 
transport  and  distribute,  would  it  not  be  better 
ecoiu)my,  instead  of  purchasing  l)arn  manures  from 
the  city  stables,  to  get  some  of  the  huimis  for  tin- 
soil  by  raising  cover  and  catch  crops  foi-  green  ma 
nure,  and  then  secure  the  additiomd  i)lant-food  needed 
by  the  more  liberal  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  ?  In 
market -gardening,  rapid,  early  growth  is  usually  de- 
sirable, and  it  is  likely  that  these  results  <'Ould  be 
secured  througii  the  quick -acting  fertilizers,  in  con- 
nection with  barn  manures  and  cover  croi)s.  more 
economically  than  through  the  slower-acting  manures 
alone.      (See  Chapter  XIV.) 

Fertilizers  usually  give  best  i-esults  when  they  are 
well  mixed  with  the  soil  which  lies  near  to  and 
around  the  seeds  when  they  ai-e  planted.  Liberal  ap- 
plications of  higli -grade  fertilizers,  esi)ecially  if  applied 
when  the  soil  is  dryish,  nuiy  do  serious  injury  by 
absorbing  the  moisture  in  the  soil,  thei-eby  arresting 
germination,  or  by  furnishing  i)lant-food  which  is 
too  concentrated  for  the  young  rootlets,  in  which  case 
the    roots   are    injured,   and    are    said    to    be  "burned 


Estimaiffl    Valups   of   Fertilizers.  277 

off."  When  moisture  is  abundant,  no  damage  is 
likely  to  occur,  since  the  fertilizers  then  tend  to 
become  diffused  through  the  soil,  but  it  is  not  only 
safest,  but  most  economical,  to  incorporate  tlie  fer- 
tilizer with  some  of  the  soil  in  the  drill  or  row. 
The  quantity  to  be  applied  can  be  determined  only 
by  trial,  having  in  mind  that  a  residue  always  re- 
mains unused  by  the  crop  to  which  it  is  applied, 
in  which  case  it  may  be  of  some  value  to  succeed- 
ing crops. 

In  some  cases  the  beneficial  action  of  fertilizers 
may  be  marked  on  the  crop  which  grows  with  and 
iiiimcdiatcly  after  the  one  to  Avhich  they  are  applied; 
tor  instance,  fertilizers  applied  to  wheat  and  similar 
I'l'ops  may  benefit  the  timothy  and  clover  seeding  as 
luucli  as  the  wheat.  In  fact,  it  not  infrequently 
liapprns  that  but  a  poor  or  even  no  "stand"  of 
grass  can  be  secured  without  the  use  of  fertilizers 
on  the  wheat,  whereas  by  their  use  a  successful 
"catch"  is  secured. 

ESTIMATING     THK     ("OMMERCIAI.     VALUE     OF 
FERTILIZERS. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  determine  the  trade 
values  or  cost  of  nitrf)gen,  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash. It  is  evident  that  the  cost  must  be  governed, 
to  some  extent,  by  locality  and  other  conditions;  for 
instance,  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in 
a  ton  of  cotton -seed  meal  has  an  estimated  trade 
value,  according    to    the    illustrative    table    below,  of 


278 


The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 


$23.64 
to  $19 


per   ton. 
per  ton. 


It   sells   in   the   south   at   from   $16 


TABLE    LXXXI. 

Averagf  of  XI  analynes  of  cottonseed  meal. 
(Bal.  20,  So.  Ca.  Exp.  Sta..  18»5.) 


J    J 
1.3.T  i 

e<\    trade 
und 

Phosphoric  acid. 

s 

1 

6.75* 

0 

li 

^° 

—  s 

3  a 

^* 
8.19  « 

£ 

3 

9 

1! 

1.66  < 
5r 

aj 

£ 

r. 
O 

53 

li    1 

*     '  Insoluble. 

"3 
o 

2.76  * 

Relative  ro 
mercial  va 
per  ton. 

7.37  « 

1.25  *    2.58  « 
value 

*--<e 

\ 

923.64 

Estimat 
p<>r  po 

14.5  t 

The  following  table  gives  trade  values,  based  on 
prices  at  a  given  time  and  place,  which  serve  to  assist 
in  making  comparisons  of  various  substances  : 

TAHI,K    I, XXXII. 

Trade  values  of  fertilizing  iixgredientx  in   rate  material*  and 
rhemicals.f 

1896. 
Cts.  per  n>. 

Nitrojren  in  ammonia  salts l.i. 

"         "    nitrates 13.'t 

Organic  nitrogen  in  dry  and  fine  ground  fisli,  meat,  blood,  and 

in  high-grade  mixed  fertilizers 14. 

'•  "  ••    rotton-seed  meal 12. 

"  '•  •■    fine  ground  bone  and  tankage 1.S..5 

medium  bone  and  tankage 12. 

•The  law  of  Sonth  Carolina  pves  no  trade  value  to  insoluble  phosphoric  acid. 
Before  proceeding  further  it  should  b«  stated  that  the  term  insoluble  is  ap- 
plied to  pbonphoric  acid  which  is  insoluble  in  a  solution  of  neutral  ammonium 
(■itr.Ht»<  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.00  Ht  a  temperature  of  65°  Centigrade, 

IBuU,  4J,  Ma»s.  Hatch  Exp.  Sta.,  1«»«. 


Estimated    Trade    Values.  279 

1896. 

Cts.  per  ih. 

Or^nic  nitrogen  in  medium  bone  and  tankage 9. 

"  "  "    coarse  bone  and  tankage 3. 

''  "  ■•    hair,  born  shavings  and  coarse  flsh  scraps.  3. 

Phosphoric  acid  soluble  in  water ,5.5 

"  ''  "        "  ammonium  citrate .5. 

"  "in  tine  bone  and  tankage ri. 

''  "      "    "     medium  bone  and  tankage 4. 

"  li      li  medium  bone  and  tankage 2.."i 

"  I.      ..  coarse  bone  and  tankage 2. 

"  "      "  fine  ground   fish,  cotton-seed  meal,  linseed 

meal,  castor  pomace  and  wood  ashes 4..") 

"  '■  insoluble  (in  ammonium  citrate)  in   mixed 

fertilizers 2. 

Potash    as    high-grade    sulphate,   and    in   mixtures   free   from 

muriate 5. 

"         ■'  •■  muriate 4..'i 

The  manurial  coustifufinix  contained  in  feed-stuffs  are   valtted  as 
follnics  : 

Organic  nitrogen 12. 

Phosphoric  acid 4.."> 

Potash 5. 

"  The  above  trade  values  are  the  figures  at  which, 
in  the  six  months  preceeding  March,  1896,  the  respec- 
tive ingredients  could  be  bought  at  retail  for  cash  iv 
our  large  markets,  in  the  raw  materials,  which  are  the 
regular  source  of   supply." 

While  the  preceding  table  gives  the  trade  values 
of  fertilizing  ingredients  in  raw  materials  and  chemi- 
cals in  the  six  months  preceding  March,  1896,  it  gives 
no  information  as  to  the  prices  the  farmer  paid  fo)- 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  when  purchased 
from  agents  in  the  ordinary  mixed  commercial  fer- 
tilizers which  were  found  on  the  market.  Since  the 
economic  production  of  crops,  as  governed  by  the  ustj 


280  The    Fertility   of  the    Lund. 

and  rost  of  fertilizers,  must  depend  largely  on  the 
actual  cost  of  them  to  the  farmer,  it  may  be  well  to 
determine  so  far  as  it  is  possible  what  that  cost  is,  at 
least  in  one  State. 

W.  II.  .Jordan,  Director  of  the  New  York  State 
K.vperiment  Station,  has  made  an  extended  study  of 
this  subject,  and  since  the  execution  of  the  laws 
tjoverning  the  fertilizer  trade  is  assigned  to  the  State 
Station,  he  has  had  unusual  facilities  for  securing 
accurate  information.  By  permission,  I  publish  the 
following  letter  from  him,  dated  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
March  5,   1897: 

"Taking  the  average  composition  of  the  factory- 
mixed  complete  fci-tilizers  wiiich  were  offered  for  sale 
in  New  Y^ork  last  year,  together  with  the  selling 
price  as  given  us  by  the  agents,  we  find  that  the 
average  price  per  pound  for  nitrogen  would  be  20.2 
cents;  available  phosphoric  acid,  including  the  soluble, 
<S  cents;  potash,  soluble  in  water,  6.5  cents.  These 
figures  were  arrived  at  in  this  way: 

"We  found  that  the  average  selling  price  for 
these  goods  was  a  certain  percentage  above  the  prices 
for  which  similar  niaferials  could  be  bought  near 
large  markets.  In  order,  then,  to  get  the  prices 
which  the  farmers  were  asked  to  actually  pay,  we 
simply  increased  these  so-called  Station  valuations 
just  the  percentage  which  the  retail  factory -mixed 
goods  are  selling  above  what  the  same  goods  would 
cost  if  bought  according  to  Station  valuation." 

It  will  not  be  difficult  for  the  farmer  to  com- 
pare   the  average    price  paid  in  New  York  for  nitre- 


The    Farmer    to    Test    and    Decide.  281 

gen,  phosphoric  a(ud  and  potash  in  factory -mixed 
complete  fertilizers,  in  189G,  with  the  retail  cash 
price,  as  given  in  Table  LXXXII.  Having  shown 
what  the  trade  values  of  various  ingredients  were 
in  our  large  markets  in  1896,  and  the  average  cost 
to  the  user  for  the  same  ingredients  in  the  same 
year,  it  nuist  now  be  left  to  the  farmer  to  decide 
for  himself  whether  he  will  purchase  plant -food  in 
the  various  forms  of  raw  material  or  in  factory- 
mixed  fertilizers.  (See  "Home  Mixing  of  Fertili- 
zers," page  289.) 

The  trade  value  or  cost  of  many  fertilizing  sub- 
stances may  be  determined  approximately,  but  how 
much  anj'  given  fertilizer  may  be  worth  to  the  user 
of  it  cannot  l)e  determined  until  a  trial  of  it  has 
l>een  made  in  the  field,  and  as  soon  as  this  is  done 
so  many  complications  enter  into  the  investigation 
that  it  requires  a  clear  understanding  to  interpret 
the  results.  High-grade  fertilizers  are  often  applied 
to  soils  which  contain  only  a  moderate  sui)ply  of 
available  plant -food,  with  no  marked  benefits.  In 
such  cases  the  manufacturer  may  be  accused  of  sell- 
ing a  poor  quality  of  goods  at  exorbitant  prices. 
In  some  cases,  it  is  probable  that,  had  the  purchaser 
of  the  fertilizer  used  as  much  intelligence  in  secur- 
ing good  seed  and  comfortable  conditions  for  the 
plants  as  the  manufacturer  of  reliable  fertilizers  is 
compelled  to  use  in  his  business,  the  results  might 
have  been  entirely  satisfactory. 

An  earnest  effort  should  be  made  on  the  part 
of   the   farmer   to   give    fertilizers    full    opportunity  to 


282  Thf    Fertility   of  the   Land. 

produce  results,  for  only  by  so  doing  can  any  true 
test  be  made  of  their  value.  That  such  opportunity 
is  not  given  in  many  cases  is  fully  proved  by  the 
fact  that  the  farmers  who  are  most  painstaking  in 
selecting  seed  and  in  preparing  the  land  for  a  crop 
ptirchase  fertilizers  more  freely  than  those  do  who 
are  careless  in  their  farm  operations.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  manufacturers  should  take  pains  to  make 
the  statement  t)f  the  percentages  of  the  valuable 
constituents  in  their  goods  so  plain  that  fair  com- 
parisons could  be  made  easily.  Nearly  all  of  the  old, 
well -established  firms  make  a  fairly  dear  statement 
on  the  tags  attached  to  their  packages,  but  many 
fertilizers  are  placed  on  the  market  with  confusing 
statements  as  to  their  composition.  The  two  follow- 
ing samples,  copied  from  manufacturers'  tags,  have 
the  appearance  of  an  effort  to  confuse  the  purchaser 
and  to  prevent  him  from  arriving  at  any  basis  for 
comparisons: 

SAMPLE    !. 

A  nalj/gis. 

Per  cent. 

Ammonia .1.      to    4. 

Phosjihorip  acicl  i  soluhU'  and  reverted  • 10.        '•12. 

Phosphoric  avid  ( insolutilf  I 1.        "    2. 

Total  phosphoric  acid 11.        •'  14. 

Potash  KjO  I  a<-tnal) 1.62    •'    2.16 

bultat.-  of  potjtsli 3.        ••     4. 

Suppose  the  tag  had  given  the  following  analysis, 
unaccompanied  by  any  statements  which  are  not  under- 
stood by  the  farmer,  the  estimated  value  could  have 
Imm'11  easily  made  out  by  the  purchaser; 


Estimates   Based   on    Table    LXXXII.  283 

Manufacturer' !<  guaranteed  analysis  simplified. 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 2.47  to  3.29 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble   7.       ''  8. 

"  "      reverted 3.       "  4. 

F'otash  (KaO)    1.62  "  2.16 

Estimated  value  per  ton. 

Nitrogen 49.4  lbs.  at  14    cents,  $6.92 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble 140.      "      "    5.5     "         7.70 

"  "      reverted 60.      '•      "    5.       "        3.00 

Potash 32.      '•      •'    4.5    "         1.44 

$19.06 

This  fertilizer  was  retailed  at  $30  per  ton. 

SAMPLE    11. 

Analysis. 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 3.  to  4. 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble 8.  "  9. 

"  "     reverted 2.  "  3. 

Potash 4.  "  5. 

Estimated  value  per  ton. 

Nitrogen 60  lbs.  at  14    cents,  $8.40 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble 160    "     "    5.5      "         8.80 

"  "      reverted 40    "     "    5.        "         2.00 

"  "      insoluble    30    " 

Potash 80    '•     •'    4.5        ■         3.60 

$22.80 

The  retail  price  being  $30  per  ton,  leaves  $7.20 
to  cover  cost  of  mixing,  sacks,  transportation,  agent's 
commission,  interest  on  deferred  payments,  sundry  in- 
cidental charges,  and  profits. 

The  following  figures  are  also  copies  of  tags  attached 
to  commereial  fertilizer  sacks,     It  njust  be  left  to  those 


284  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

who  concocted  them  to  give  the  reasons  for  this  work 
of  supererogation  : 


SAMPLE    III. 

Ammoniated  bone  phosphate. 

Per  cent. 

Xif roffen I  .o:!  to    1  .Bft 

Kquivalent  to  ainniotiia 1.2.')  "     2. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid fi.       ••     7. 

Rfvcrtpd         "  "     '>.       ••     6. 

Availabh;         ••  •'     11.       "13. 

In.sohible         ••  "    2.       "     3. 

Total  '•  "     l.i.       •'   16. 

Potash 3.       "     5. 


SAMPLE    IV. 

Ifnrrfsf   boiif. 

Per  fptlt. 

Total  bono  pho.<;phato .'iO  to  .'i."» 

YioldinfT  phosphoric  aciii 14  •■  Ki 

Soluble  bone  phosphate 22  •  •  21) 

Yielding  water  soluble  phosphoric  acid li>  ••  12 

Total  availal)le  bone   jjliosphate 2t)  "•  .'{n 

Available  phosphoric  acid 12  '•  14 

Insoluble  boue  phosphate 2  "  4 

Yielding  insoluble  phosphoric  aciil 1   •'  2 


SAMPLE    V. 

Sp/'rinl  potittn    »irn}uri  . 

Per  oenf. 

Moisture 10.      to  l.'i. 

Ammonia 2.       ••    2.2.T 

Available  phosphoric  acid 8.        •'    9. 

K(|uivalent  to  bone  phosj)liate  of  lime 20.74  ••  24.01 

Insoluble  phosphori<'  acid 1.2.5  '•    2. 

Potash  8.       ••    8.50 

Equivalent  to  .sulphate 11.80    •  13.72 


Read   and    Consider.  285 

Simplified  statement  of  sample  Hi. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton.  Estirtiated  value. 

Nitrogen 1.0:5  'iO.O  Hjs.  at  14    cents,  $2.88 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid    C.  120.      "     "     5.5     "        6.60 

Reverted        "  "5.  100.      "     "     5.       "         5.00 

Potash ;{.  60.      ••     ••     4.5     ••        2.70 

$17.18 
Simplified  statement  of  sample  ii\ 

Per  cent.       Per  ton.  Estiniiiteil  value. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid. . .    10         200  lbs.  at  5.5  cents,  $11.00 
Reverted         "  "...     2  40    ••     ••    5         ••  2.00 

$13.00 
Simplified  statement  of  sample   v. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton.                     Estimated  value. 

Nitrogen 1.G5  33  lbs.  at  14.  cents,  $4.62 

Available  phosphoric  acid  8.  160     "     "  5.        "         8.00 

Potasii 8.  160     "     •'  4.5      •'         7.20 

$19.82 

What  inforiiiation  c^an  a  farmer  get  from  the  follow- 
ing guaranteed  analysis,  whieli  is  copied,  as  are  the 
quotations  below,  from  the  New  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station: 

SAMPLK    VI. 

"  '  jVataral  plant -food. 

Per  cent. 

"  '  Phosphoric  acid.     Total  (  P2O5) 21.60  to  29.49 

Ec{uivalent  to  bone  phospliate  of  lime 27.20  ■•  (i4.38 

Potash  (K2O)  from  glauconite 1.00  •'    2.00 

Equivalent  to  common  sulfate  of  potash    2.00  '•    4.00 

Silicic  acid  (SiOa) 5.2(i  •'    8.10 

Carbonic  acid  {CO2) 2.07"    3.00 

Lime  (CaO) 29.16  "  32.00 

Magnesia  (MgO)  and  soda   (NajO) 3.21   "    8.05 

Alumiuic  (AI2O3)  and  ferric  (Fe^Oj)  oxids   5.14  "  10.26 


"  'All  available  to  plants  in  the  soil.     The  above  are 
the  lowest  and  average  analyses.'" 


286  Tlir    FprtHitif    of  the    Lanfi. 

"The  guaranteed  analysis  implies,  and  a  specifie 
claim  is  made,  that  the  material  is  all  available  to 
plants  in  the   soil."* 

The  New  York  State  Station  has  performed  a  val- 
nable  service  in  showing  in  a  brief  statement  the 
percentages  of  available  phosphorii*  acid  and  potash 
in  this  fertilizer  with  a  high-sounding  name,  which 
was  retailed,  including  the  name, — which  must  have 
had  great  value,  — at  from  $25  to  $28  a  ton.  "An 
average  of  three  samples  shows  the  following  com- 
position : 

Per  cent. 

"Total  phosphoric  acid 22.21 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid 20.81 

Available  ]>hosplu)ric  acid 1.40 

Potash  soluble  in  water IIJ" 

"Natural  Plant-food"  is  really  a  mixture  of  some 
rock  phosphate  (probably  Florida  soft  phosphate)  with 
glauconite,  a  mineral  containing  potash  in  an  insolu- 
ble form,  commonly  known   as  "green   sand  marl." 

Computing  this,  as  in  previous  cases,  the  follow- 
ing estimated  values  are  secured: 

Per  ton. 

Available  phosphoric  acid 28.    lbs.  at  .5    cents,  $1.40 

Potash ._ 2.(!    ••     ••4.5      ••  .12 

$1.52 

"The  law  of  Georgia  does  not  recognize  insoluble 
phosphoric   acid    as  plant- food. "+      This  would  appear 

•Bull.  108,  N.  Y.  Agr.  Kxv.  Sta..  tieneva.  N.  Y.  New  Series,  Sept.  1896.  The 
real  value  of  "  Natural  Plant-food,"  L.  L.  Van  Slyke,  Ph.D.,  chemist. 

tl  am  credibly  informed  that  in  several  other  southern  states  insolubl* 
phosphoric  acid  is  treated  as  in  Oeorgia. 


Ij^tzif    Plan  f -food.  287 

to  be  a  wise  provision,  since  insoluble  plant -food  is 
not  what  is  usually  wanted  in  a  fertilizxT,  as  the 
soil  contains  great  abundance  of  it.  In  Table  II., 
Chapter  I.,  the  average  of  forty-nine  soil  analyses 
shows  that  more  than  4,000  pounds  per  acre  of  phos- 
phoric acid  are  contained  in  the  first  eight  inches  of 
surface  soil,  the  larger  part  of  which,  presumably,  is 
insoluble  under  present  methods  of  tillage.  Would  it 
be  wise  or  profitable  to  purchase,  at  2  cents  per 
pound,  additional  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  when  the 
soil  contains  such  vast  stores  of  this  low-grade  plant- 
food  f  True,  a  part  of  the  so-called  insoluble  phos- 
phoric acid  may  become  available  and  produce  bene- 
ficial results,  but  since  the  soil  is  usually  abundantly 
supplied  with  the  same  kind  of  material,  would  it  not 
be  wiser  to  make  it  available  by  tillage  than  to  pur- 
chase more   of   this  lazy   plant-food? 

In  some  cases  liberal  applications  of  insoluble 
phosphoric  acid  show  beneficial  results.  If  two  pots 
be  filled  from  the  same  kind  of  soil,  and  to  one  is 
added  insoluljle  phosphoric  acid,  plants  growing  in 
the  treated  soil  should  ))e  benefited,  since  their  roots 
would,  of  necessity,  come  in  contact  Avith  more  insol- 
uble phosphoric  acid  in  the  treated  than  in  the  un- 
treated soil.  The  roots  of  plants,  some  more  than 
others,  ai'e  able  to  utilize  a  small  portion  of  the  so- 
called  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  -.  hence  it  cannot  be 
said  to  be  worthless.  Some  Stations  give  to  insoluble 
phosphoric  acid  in  mixed  fertilizers  an  estimated  trade 
value  of  2  cents  per  pound,  while  others  assign  to  it 
no  trade   value  whatever.     Nevertheless,  there  may  be 


288  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

exceptional  cases  where,  on  account  of  the  small 
cost  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  it  could  be  applied 
advantaf^cously  and  even  with  profit. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  foregoing  that  there  is  a 
difference  of  oi>inion  as  to  the  value  of  so-called  "in- 
solul)le  phosphoric  acid."  If  the  reader  believes  that 
it  is  worth  to  him  2  cents  per  jjound,  then  the  pre- 
vious computations  should  be  amended,  and  the  fol- 
lowing amounts  should  be  added  to  the  computed 
value:  To  sample  I.,  40  <-ents ;  II.,  GO  cents;  III., 
80  ri-nts  ;  IV..  40  cents;  V.,  50  cents,  and  to  VI., 
$H.;{2   per  ton. 

This  "Natural  Plant -food"  has  been  treated  at 
length,  and  it  is  an  extreme  example  of  what  is  and 
has  l)een  taking  place  to  a  gi'cater  or  less  extent  in 
many  localities  where  fertilizers  are  used,  notwith- 
standing that  intelligent  efforts  have  been  made  to 
guard  the  rights  of  users  of  commercial  i)lant-food. 

The  subjects  of  values,  estimated  values,  and  use 
of  fertilizers  are  surrounded  with  many  difficulties.  l)ut 
this  fact  should  act  as  a  spur  to  increased  effort  t»» 
learn  what  we  may,  although  we  may  never  come  to 
unanimous  conclusion  as  to  the  trade  value  or  actual 
value  of  various  kinds  of  plant -food,  or  be  able  to 
treat  the  sul)ject  mathematically.  When  fertilizers 
which  are  .sold  at  nearly  the  same  price  vary  in  es- 
timated value,  as  computed  by  their  guaranteed  anal- 
yses, from  $3  to  $20  per  ton,  the  fact  is  worth 
knowing.  If  unmixed  fertilizers  containing  a  known 
percentage  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
are    separately     purcha.sed,    opportunity     is    given     to 


Question    the    Soil.  289 

make  tests  on  small  areas  at  a  slight  cost,  as  they 
can  be  mixed  in  variable  quantities  to  suit  the  soil 
and  the  crop  to  be  raised. 

While  esteeming  the  efforts  which  are  being  made 
by  manufacturers  for  promoting  the  farmer's  in- 
terests, I  am  led  to  urge  the  farmer  to  do  a  little 
more  thinking  for  himself.  Some  of  the  manufac- 
turers make  careful  and  extended  experiments  with 
their  fertilizers  in  the  field,  with  the  view  of  dis- 
covering how  best  to  compound  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash.  When  large  sums  are  invested 
in  this  business,  it  would  be  bad  policy  to  send  out 
goods  which  would  not,  as  a  rule,  give  satisfactory 
results,  otherwise  the  business  would  soon  come  to  an 
end.  However  valuable  these  manufacturers'  tests 
may  be,  they  cannot  take  the  place  of  those  which 
should  be  made  by  every  farmer  who  uses  fertilizers 
upon  his  own  soils  and  under  his  particular  condi- 
tions. It  has  been  pointed  out  how  variable  the 
virgin  soil  is,  and  this  soil  has  been  made  still  more 
variable  by  tillage  and  cropping ;  hence  the  need  of 
careful  fertilizer  tests  by  the  farmer  on  his  own 
fields,  since  no  test  made  elsewhere  will  tell  cer- 
tainly what  he  wants  to  know. 

HOME   MIXING   OP   FERTILIZERS.* 

It  is  believed  that  the  following  explanations  will 
be  of  assistance  to  the  young  farmer  in  his  efforts 
to    make    an    intelligent    use    of  commercial  fertilizers. 

*  By  L.  A.  Clinton,  Assistant  Aericulturisl,  Cornell  Exp.  St«. 
T 


290  The   FertiUty   of  the    Land. 

In  the  home  mixing  of  fertilizers,  it  is  frequently 
desirable  to  know  what  percentage  of  the  different 
elements  is  contained  in  the  mixture.  We  will  assume 
that  it  is  wished  to  compound  a  fertilizer  made  up 
of  materials  combined  in  the  following  proportion: 

Lbs.  Per  cent. 

Nitrate  of  soda 100  jifuaranteed  15  Jiitrogen. 

Acid  phosphate r)00  ••  12  jihosphoric  acid. 

Muriate  of  potash 100  •  50  potash. 

700 

We  have  a  mixture  of  TCK)  pounds  of  material 
containing  lij  pounds  of  nitrogen,  GO  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  50  pounds  of  potash.  To  find 
the  percentage  of  each  of  tlie  elements,  divide  the 
amount  of  each  element  by  the  total  amount  of  the 
mixture.  In  the  assumed  case  the  calculation  would 
be  as  follows: 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 15  :  700=2. 14  nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  acid tilt  :  700=8.57  phosphoric  acid. 

.Muriate  of  potash 50  :  700=7.14  i>otash. 

If  it  should  be  desired  to  compound  a  fertilizer 
for  wheat,  using  as  the  materials  sulfate  of  am- 
monia, dissolved  bone  and  kainit.  we  will  assume 
that  they  are  combined  in  the  pr(»portions  and  have 
the  guaranteed  analyses  as  given  below: 

Lbs.  Per  cent. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia 80  guaranteed   24  ammonia. 

Dissolved  bone 200  '•  14  phosphoric  acid. 

2  nitrogen. 
Kainit 200  '•  13  potash. 

4«0 


MixiiKj   of    Fertilizers.  291 

We  have  a  mixture  of  480  pounds,  the  sulfate 
of  amraouia  contaiuiug  19.20  pounds  of  ammonia, 
of  which  IT,  or  15.8  pounds,  is  nitrogen.  The  dis- 
solved bone  contains  2  per  cent  nitrogen,  or  4 
pounds.  There  is  a  total  of  19.8  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 28  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  26  pounds 
of  potash.  The  percentage  of  each  element  in  the 
mixture  will  now  be  calculated  as  in  the  previous 
case: 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 19.8-r480=4.12  nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  acid 28.  -=-480=5.83  phosphoric  acid. 

Potash    26.  -:-480=5.41  potash. 

Thus  having  given  the  ingredients  of  the  mix- 
ture, and  knowing  the  amount  and  guaranteed 
analysis  of  each  ingredient,  it  becomes  an  easy  mat- 
ter to  determine  how  many  pounds,  and  the  pci-- 
centage  of  the  valuable  elements,  are  being  applied 
per  acre. 

In  case  it  is  wished  to  compound  and  apply  a 
mixture  of  500  pounds  which  shall  analyze  4  per 
cent  nitrogen,  6  per  cent  potash,  and  10  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid,  and  assuming  that  the  materials  at 
hand  are  nitrate  of  soda  guaranteed  15  per  cent 
nitrogen,  dissolved  phosphate  rock  guaranteed  18  per 
cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  muriate  of  potash  guaran- 
teed 50  per  cent  potash,  the  calculation  would  be 
made  as  follows: 

A  mixture  of  500  pounds,  to  contain  4  per  cent 
nitrogen,  calls  for  20  pounds  of  nitrogen;  6  per  cent 
potash    calls    for    30    pounds    of    potash;     10    per   cent 


292  The    Fertility    of  the    lAind. 

phosphoric  acid  calls  f<u-  '>()  pouiuls  phosphoric  acid. 
To  deteriniue  how  many  pounds  of  each  ingredient 
are  required  to  furnish  the  necessary  amount,  divide 
the  number  of  pounds  of  each  element  in  the  mix- 
ture by  the  guaranteed  per  cent  of  the  element  in 
the  ingredient.  In  the  case  in  hand  the  determina- 
tions would  be  as  follows: 


Element.            Lbs.     Guarantee*!  Lbs.  of  inKredient 

required,  per  rent  in  re<iuired. 
ingredient. 

Nitrogen 20             15  '/r  l-'W  nitrate  of  .soda. 

l*hosi)boric  acitl..   SO             18  "  277  di>s<dv»'d  pliosphate  rock. 

I'otash ;{0             50  ••  (iO  muriate  potash. 

Total  pounds  of  ingredients. .  470 


It  will  be  seen  tliat  the  total  weight  of  the  in- 
gredients is  but  470  pounds.  To  supply  the  addi- 
tional 30  pounds  required  to  make  the  500  pounds 
of  fertilizer,  it  will  be  necessary  to  add  some  ex- 
traneous material,  as  fine  road -dust  or  gypsum.  The 
addition  of  extraneous  matter  to  a  mixture  of  high- 
grade  chemicals  is  advisable  only  because  it  facili- 
tates the  even  distribution  of  the  fertilizer  over  the 
land,  and  in  the  use  of  high-grade  chemicals  this 
even  distribution  is  most  important.  Should  it  be 
so  distributed  that  a  considerable  amount  was  left 
in  spots,  the  plants,  especially  if  young  and  tender, 
would  probably  be  destroyed  or  injured  on  those 
places.  It  is  usually  better  to  purchase  high-grade 
chemicals  and  add  the  extraneous  material  at  home, 
if   thought    best,  rather   than    to    pay  others  for   add- 


Methods   of   Mixing.  293 

ing  it,  and  then  paj-  freight  and  carriage  to  the  place 
of  consumption. 

The  objection  to  the  home  mixing  of  the  mate- 
rials is  that  the  work  may  not  be  properly  done. 
This  is  an  important  operation,  and  should  be  most 
thoroughly  performed.  A  tight,  smooth  floor  is  th<' 
first  requisite.  It  is  usually  well  to  have  the  mate- 
rials for  the  mixture  each  in  a  separate  pile,  and  so 
arranged  that  they  can  be  easily  shoveled  at  the 
same  time  into  one  common  lot.  Afterwards  the 
whole  mass  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  by  shoveling 
it  over  several  times.  It  should  be  said  that  usually 
the  mixing  should  be  done  but  a  short  time  before 
the  material  is  to  be  used,  and  that  compounds  con- 
taining ammonia  should  not  be  mixed  with   lime. 

If  from  the  following  materials  we  make  a  ton  of 
mixture,  we  would  have  to  calculate  the  needed 
amounts  as  follows: 


Per 

cent. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia  . . . . 

20.    nitrogen=400  Ihs.  nitrogen  in  a  ton. 
;.         •'       =140 '  •• 

2..')  available  phosphoric  aci(l=: 

Cotton -scf'fl  meal 

.')0  Ihs.           •'                ' ' 

1.9   water    soluble    i)otash=1fl 

lbs.  potash                               ' 

A^'id  ]>h'»s]'>hate *.  . 

].■).     available  phosjjhorie  acicl= 



.'iO  lbs.           ••               ' 

Muriate  of  potash 

1 

.")0.     water  =  soluble      potash=: 

1 

1,000  lbs.  potash                     "   "   •' 

If  we  desire  to  mix  the  ingredients  to  make  a  fer- 
tilizer with  any  percentages  of  the  three  valual)le  in- 
gredients, say  5.3  per  cent  each  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash,   we  proceed  as  follows; 


294  The   Fertility   of  thf    Ixind. 

Ver  rent. 
2,000^-  .').")=  110  lbs.  nitrogen  require<l  in  a  ton. 
2,000Xi>-">=110    "     pilosphoric  w'uX  rerjuirf*!  in  a  ton. 
2.000XS-')=110   "     potash  requirfd  in  a  ton. 

Out  of  this  110  pounds  of  nitrogen,  we  wish 
2.5  per  eent,  or  50  pounds,  of  it  to  come  from  sul- 
fate of  ammonia  and  the  rest  from  eotton-seed  meal. 
Twenty  i)er  cent  is  '20  pounds  out  of  tlie  KM)  pounds, 
and  20  per  eent  nitrogen  in  sulfate  of  ammonia  is 
20  jmunds  nit?*ogen  out  of  the  100  ])ounds  of  sulfate 
of  ammonia.      Then  from  a  simple  proportion: 

y...  ■    .„    (sulfate  of  am-)    ._    /nitrogen)     .     .      (sulfate  of    »ni- ) 

Nitrogen  is  to  ^  „,„^j^  ^^^  ,,^„^  ;   as    ,  ^^^^^     j    is  to    ,  ^,„„j^  required.  '' 

20  lbs.        :  100  lbs.  :    :       oO  lbs.  :  250  lbs. 

Tiiis  250  pounds  of  sulfate  of  ammonia  gives  50 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  or  2.5  per  cent  for  50  :  2,(KX)=2.5 
per  cent.  We  need  13  per  cent  of  nitrogen  still  to 
give  us  the  retpiired  5.5  per  cent.  It  follows,  then, 
that  2,000  X  .{  per  cent  =60  pounds,  to  be  supplied  V)v 
the  cotton -seed  meal,  which  has  7  per  cent  nitrogen 
or  7  pounds  of  nitrogen  to  the  100  pounds  of  raw 
material.     Then  again,  by  jn-oportion: 

Nitrogen.       <'()ltinisee<l  meal.     Nitrogen  needed.       Cotton-seed  meal. 
7  lbs.        :        100  lbs.  :    :  60  lbs.  :  857  lbs. 

This  857  pounds  cotton -seed  meal  gives  59.99 
])ounds  nitrogen.  Adding  now  the  amount  of  nitro- 
gen ol)tained  from  the  250  pounds  sulfate  of  ammo- 
nia (50  pounds)  to  that  obtained  from  the  857  pounds 
cotton-seed  meal  (00  pounds),  we  have  the  110  pounds 
of    nitrogen     wanted.      In    the    cotton -seed    meal    we 


Home   Mixing  of  Fertilizers.  295 

have   2.5    per    cent    of   phosphoric    acid   and  1.9    per 
cent  of  potash;   so — 

875X2.5  per  cent  =  21.43  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 

and 

857X1.9  per  cent  =  16.28  pounds  of  potash. 

Subtracting  the  21.43  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 
from  the  original   110  pounds  wanted,   we  have: 

110—21.43=88.57  pounds  phosphoric  acid. 

This  87.57  pounds  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  15 
per  cent  acid  phosphate.     Proceeding  as  before: 

Phos.  acid.      Acid  phosphate.      Phos.  acid  needed.      Acid  phos.  required. 
]5  Ih.s.       :  100  lbs.       :    :        88. .'jT  lbs.         :  590. 4(i  lbs. 

Adding  the  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  obtained 
from  the  857  pounds  cotton-seed  meal,  which  is  21.43 
pounds,  and  from  the  590.46  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate, which  is  88.57  pounds,  we  have  the  110 
pounds   of  phosphoric  acid  needed. 

Continuing  similarly  for  the  potash,  and  subtract- 
ing the  16.28  pounds  of  potash  obtained  from  the 
857  pounds  of  cotton -seed  meal,  we  have  93.72 
pounds  to  be  obtained  from  the  muriate  of  potash, 
which  has  50  per  cent,  or  50  pounds,  of  potash  to 
the  100  pounds;   then — 

Potash.      Muriate  potash.      Potash  needed.      Muriate  pot.  required. 
50  lbs.     :     100  lbs.        :    :       93.72  lbs.       :       187.44  lbs. 

Adding     together    the     16.28    pounds     of     potash 


296  The    Fertility    of  the    Tjand. 

obtained  from  the  cotton -seed  meal  and  the  93.72 
pounds  obtained  from  the  muriate  of  potash,  we 
have  the  desired  110  pounds  of  potash.  If  the  raw 
materials  do  not  add  up  to  2,000  pounds,  fine  sand 
or  gypsum  may  be  added,  in  order  to  make  the  exact 
weight  and  exact  percentages,  or  if  desirable,  higher 
or  lower  percentages  may  be  had  by  mixing  differ- 
ently. Summing  up,  in  order  to  see  if  our  mixture  is 
all  right,  we  have: 

Percent.  Nitrogen.       Phos.  acid.      Potasii. 

20.       Sulfate  of  ammonia 250.      lbs.  =  50  lbs. 

7.    1 

2.5  }.  Cotton-seed  meal 857  "    =:  60    "     21.4rnbs.       Iti.28  II.- 

1.9  j 

Acid  phosphate 590.46    "  88.57    •' 

Aluriate  of  potash 187.72    "  9:t.72     ■ 

1,885.18    "  -^  110    "   110.  no. 

Sand  or  dirt 114.82    " 

2,000.00    ••     ^    5.5%      5.5%  5.5% 

It  is  seen  again  that  it  is  better  to  buy  the  three 
elements  of  plant- food  separately  in  concentrated 
forms  and  to  mix  them  at  home 

The  foregoing  calculations  by  Mr.  Clinton  suffi- 
ciently indicate  the  nature  of  the  problem  before  us. 
The  author  is  now  able  to  make  general  conclusions. 
The  following  quotation  is  taken  from  a  paper 
read  by  T.  Greiner  before  the  Massachu.setts  Horticul- 
tural Society,  February  20,  1897:  "I  can  see  no 
necessity  for  using  ready-made  mixtures  in  the  gar- 
den, but  the  strongest  reasons  for  avoiding  that 
course.     The    mixtures    sent    out    by    various    firms    as 


Knowledge    and    Skill    Count.  297 

specially  adapted  for  garden  crops  vary  in  real  value 
y)etween  $20  and  $26  per  ton,  and  sell  at  from  $30  to 
$40.  In  other  words,  we  pay  the  full  value  and  50 
per  cent  additional  to  make  expenses  and  losses,  as 
well  as  seller's  profit.      In  the  following — 

.500  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda,  costing  about $11.25 

1,200    "    (iissolved  8.  C.  rock,  costing  about 6.00 

300    "    muriate  of  potash,  costing  about 6.75 

2,000  $24.00 

we  have  a  ton  which  is  worth  $27.90,  and  equal  to  a 
fertilizer  sold  by  manufacturers  at  about  $40." 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  treat  the  subject  of 
the  trade  values  and  home  mixing  of  commercial 
fertilizers  simply  and  clearly;  nevertheless,  the  farmer 
untrained  in  chemistry  will  have  to  make  a  study  of 
the  tables  and  explanations  before  he  can  compute 
estimated  values,  or  make  intelligent  comparisons  be- 
tween two  fertilizers  having  an  honest  guaranteed 
analysis.  It  has  been  shown  how  widely  the  esti- 
mated values,  in  some  cases,  differ  from  the  selling 
price  in  various  brands  of  fertilizers.  It  must  now 
l)e  left  to  the  farmer  to  work  out  trade  values,  esti- 
mated values,  and  the  actual  values  to  him  of  the 
goods  he  purchases.  It  should  be  rememl^ered.  how- 
ever, that  the  raanufactuivr  may  charge  a  dollar  an 
hour  for  his  services  in  making  estimates,  while  the 
farmer  may  receive  not  iDore  than  a  dollar  a  day  for 
his  time.  Would  it  not  be  better  for  the  farmer  to 
fit  himself  for  making  these  computations,  and  thus 
secu^'e  the  more  liberal  remuneration? 


298  The    Fertility   of  the    Txind. 

A   WORD   ON   THE   CHEMISTRY   OF   THE   SUPER- 
PHOSPHATES.* 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  word  super- 
phosphate is  understood  by  farmers  to  be  simply  an- 
other name  for  commen-ial  fertilizers;  but  in  tlie 
books,  it  is  used  in  its  true  meaning,  to  designate 
a  super- phosphated  fertilizer.  When  a  superphosphate 
is  applied  to  the  soil,  it  is  with  the  intention  of 
furnishing  available  phosphoric,  acid.  Soluble  phos- 
phoric acid  is  desired  because  plants  feed  most 
readily  upon  those  elements  in  the  soil  that  arc 
most  easily  dissolved.  Phosphori<*  acid  as  it  exists 
in  nature,  either  in  bones,  bone  deposits,  or  rocks,  is 
almost  always  in  an  insoluble  condition;  lience,  if  we 
would  apply  it  in  an  available  form,  that  found  in  na- 
ture must  be  treated  in  some  way.     How  is  tliis  done  ? 

Before  considering  the  <'hemical  principles  upon 
which  the  manufacture  of  a  superphosphate  rests, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  understand  something  of  the 
different  compounds  which  phosphoric  acid  forms 
with  lime.  Phosphoric  acid  is  represented  l)y  PaO,, 
in  which  P  represents  the  element  phosphorus,  and 
O  the  element  oxygen,  and  the  figures  2  and  5  that 
phosphoric  acid  is  made  ])y  the  combination  f)f  two 
parts  of  phosphorus  and  five  of  oxygen.  Similarly, 
lime  is  represented  ))y  CaO,  to  show  that  it  is  com- 
posed of  one  part  of  tiie  element  calcium  (Ca)  and 
oiu'  part  of  oxygen.  By  an  element,  is  meant  any 
substance  which   cannot   be   separated   by  any   possible 

•  By  Oaorge  W.  CaranauKh,  Assistant  Chemist  of  the  Cornell  Exp.  St*. 


The    Three    Cnlcic    Phospluttes.  2U9 

means  into  any  other  substances.  Whenever,  two  or 
more  elements  enter  into  combination  to  form  a  new 
substance,  this  new  substance  is  called  a  compound. 
For  example,  phosphorus  (P)  and  oxy{?en  (O)  are 
elements,  but  phosphoric  acid  (P2O5)  is  a  c<mipound. 
Not  only  do  elements  com))ine  to  form  compounds, 
but  many  of  the  compounds  themselves  coml)ine  again 
to  form  more  complex  compounds.  Thus  calcium 
(Ca)  and  phosphorus  (P)  each  unites  with  oxygen  (O) 
to  form  lime  (CaO)  and  phosphoric  acid  (P2O5);  and 
then  the  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  ma\'  unite  to  form 
l)hosphate  of  lime. 

Phosphoric    acid    (P2O5),    as    found    in    bones   and 
rocks,   is  united    with  three    parts  of  lime.     This  com- 

r  CaO  } 

pound    may  1)C  represented    by  the   formula  i  CaO>  P^Oj. 

This  material  is  called  tricalcium  phosphate,  because 
it  contains  three  parts  of  lime  or  calcium  oxid 
(CaO)  united  with  one  part  of  phosphoric  acid 
(PsOj).  This  is  the  form  of  ])hosphoric  acid  that  is 
known  as  "insoluble  phosphoric  acid,"  because  the 
compound  does  not  dissolve  in  water. 

A  second  form  in  which  phosphoric  acid  may  unite 

f  ^'•''^). 
with    lime   is    represented    by    the    formula  scaoV  P^Os. 

Here  the  phosphoric  acid  is  united  to  two  parts  of 
lime  and  to  one  part  of  water  (H2O),  water  being  a 
compound  containing  two  parts  of  the  element  hy- 
drogen (H)  and  one  part  of  oxygen.  This  com- 
pound is  dicalcium  phosphate.  It  is  soluble  in  soil 
water,    which  contains  carbonic  acid  (CO2). 

A  third  form  has  the  phosphoric  acid  united  to  one 


300  The    Fertility  of  the    lynul. 

part    of     lime    and    two    parts  of    water.      This  oom- 

f  CaO) 

pound  is  represented  ))y  the  formula  i  HaOV  p^Oj.     Sinc«^ 

this  oompound  has  but  one  part  of  lime  (or  cal- 
ciuiii  oxid).  it  is  called  monocalcium  phosphate.  Th»' 
inonocalcium  phosphate  can  be  dissolved  in  water, 
und  hence  is  the  form  known  as  "soluble  phos- 
phoric acid."  The  dicalcium  i)hosphate  is  known 
\inder  the  name  of  ''reverted  phosphoric  acid,"  for 
reasons  which  will  be  given  later.  Taken  together, 
the  phosphoric  acid  of  the  monocalcium  and  the 
dicalcium  phosphates  constitutes  the  available  phos- 
phoric   acid    of   a    superphosphate. 

The  prol)lem,  then,  to  the  manufacturer  of  a 
superphosphate  is  to  change  the  insoluble  tricalciuni 
phosphate  into  the  soluble  mono-  and  dicalcium 
])hosphatcs.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  sul- 
furic acid   and   water. 

The  bone,s  or  rocks  are  ground  before  being  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  the  acid,  in  order  that  the 
a(*id  may  reach  all  parts  of  the  mass.  In  the 
changes  wliicli  take  place,  one  part  of  tricalciuni 
phosjdiatc  is  acted  upon  by  two  i)arts  of  sulfuric 
acid,  yielding  one  i)art  of  monocalcium  i>hosphatc 
and  two  parts  of  calcium  sulfate  or  gypsum.  This 
is  brought  about  l)y  two  parts  of  the  element  cal- 
<'ium  in  the  tricalciuni  phosphate  leaving  their  com- 
bination with  phosphoric  acid  and  combining  with 
the  sulfuric  acid.  The  place  of  each  of  these  parts 
of  calcium  (Ca)  is  taken  by  two  parts  of  the  ('le- 
nient hydrogen  (II)  from  the  sulfuric  acid,  thus 
bringing    together    the    elements    of    water    (H,0)     iti" 


The    A  (/cue If    of    Sulfirrir    Arid.  301 

the  raonocalcium  pliosphate.  The  reaction  is  repre- 
sented by  the  following  equation  (H^SO^  represent- 
ing sulfuric  acid) : 

CaO  1  CaOl 

CaO  ^P^Oj+H  SO  =H  O  ^P.05+CaS04 

CaO  J  U,H()l     H^O  I  CaS04 

This  is  the  ideal  reaction  to  ))e  effected,  V)ecausc 
it  changes  all  of  the  phosphoric  a(ud  into  a  solu- 
ble condition.  It  is  not  possible,  ordinarily,  in  prac- 
tice, however,  to  bring  this  a])ont.  There  is  some 
part  of  the  bones  or  rock  which  is  actted  upon  by 
the  acid  in  the  propoi-tion  of  one  part  of  trical- 
cium  phosphate  to  one  part  of  the  acid.  This  may 
be  represented  by  the  equation: 

CaO  1  CaO  1 

CaO     I\Os-fH.S04=rCaO     P^Os^-CaSO^ 

CaO  J  H2O  J 

There  is  still  another  portion  of  the  tricalcium 
phosphate  which  entirely  escapes  the  action  of  the 
sulfuric  acid.  Hence  there  are  always  found  in  a 
superphosphate  the  three  conditions  of  phosphoric 
acid:  /.  e.,  monocalcium  phosphate,  or  soluble  phos- 
phoric acid ;  dicalcium  phosphate,  or  reverted  phos- 
l)horic  acid ;  and  tricalcium  phosphate,  or  insoluble 
phosphoric  acid. 

Dicalcium  phosphate  is  called  reverted  phosphoric 
acid  because,  when  monocalcium  phosphate  comes  in 
contact  with  lime,  it  reunites  with  one  part  of  lime, 
and  forms  the  dicalcium  phosphate;  that  is,  the  phos- 
phoric acid  reverts  to  a  less  soluble  condition.      If   an 


302  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

aV)undance  of  lime  be  present,  two  parts  reunite  with 
the  monocalciuin  phosphate  to  form  the  tricalciura 
phosphate;  thus  the  i)hosphoric  aeid  may  go  back  to 
its  original  (condition  ;  that  is,  it  nuiy  become  reunited 
with  three  parts  of  lime.  However,  the  phosphoric 
acid  in  this  tricalcium  phosphate  may  be  more  avail- 
able than  in  untreated  tricalcium  phosphate,  because 
it  is  more  finely  divided,  and  may  be  moi-c  intinnitely 
mixed  with  the  soil.  The  process  of  reversion  is  X\w. 
ojiposite  of  that  which  takes  place  in  the  process 
of    manufactui-e. 

The  lime  that  is  taken  from  tricalcium  phosphate 
by  the  sulfuric  acid  unites  with  the  sulfuric  acid 
to  form  gypsum,  or  land  plaslei-.  Hence,  wlienevei- 
sulfui'ic  acid  i>s  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  sujier- 
phosphate,  gypsum  is  always  one  of  the  constituents 
formed.  (For  furthei-  discussion  of  this  subject,  see 
A|)nendix   \^.) 


CHAPTER    XTII. 
LIME   AM)    r.lRlors    AMENDMENTS. 

There  are  various  sul)stanees  which  are  benefieiai 
to  the  land  at  times,  even  thougli  they  add  neither 
humus  nor  important  quantities  of  plant -food.  The 
benefits  arise  from  various  secondary  actions  which 
these  substances  have  upon  the  land,  such  as  improv- 
ing its  physical  condition  or  texture,  setting  free 
plant -food,  or  conserving  or  collecting  moisture.  This 
class  of  substances  is  known  under  the  general  name 
of  amendments.  Some  of  them,  like  muck  and 
similar  substances,  contain  much  directly  available 
plant-food,  but  for  the  most  part  these  materials 
ai*e  more  useful  for  their  secondary  or  incidental 
effects  than  for  their  intrinsic  qualities. 

LIME. 

Lime  is  obtained  from  limestone  rock,  chalk  and 
shells.  These  in  their  natural  condition  the  chemist 
terms  carbonate  of  lime  (CaCOs).  By  subjecting  them 
to  a  strong  heat  for  some  time,  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  moisture  are  driven  off,  and  the  product  is 
quicklime,  or  caustic  lime  (CaO).  When  slaked  with 
water,  hydrate  of  lime  (CaCOHla)  is  formed.  The 
carbonate   of    lime    is    usually    found    associated    with 

(303) 


n()4  Th^    Fn-tilifn    of   fh^    Ijund. 

impurities,  as  with  sand,  and  these  impurities  may  be 
so  abundant  as  to  seriously  reduce  its  value  for  a^i- 
cultural  and  mechanical  uses. 

Who  first  discovered  the  agricultural  value  of  lime 
is  not  known.  Its  general  use  for  building  pur- 
poses antedates  mediaeval  history,  and  it  could  not 
have  been  long  in  use  in  the  trades  before  its  bene- 
ficial ac^tion  on  the  soil  must  have  been  discovered 
by  accident,  if  in  no  other  way.  Liming  land  was 
practiced  to  a  limited  extent  before  the  Christian 
era.  Soon  after  1785,  a  time  when  many  improved 
methods  and  improved  breeds  of  domestic  animals 
liad  their  beginnings  in  Great  Britain,  the  practice 
of  liming  the  land  became  common  in  some  locali- 
ties.* In  both  England  and  Scotland  the  application 
of  occasional  large  dressings  of  lime,  100  to  300 
bushels  per  acre,  became  common  by  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  lack  of  thorough  drainage, 
the  growth  of  abundant  vegetation  and  the  absence 
of  sunshine  and  warmth  in  England  resulted  in  filling 
the  land  with  i)artially  decayed  organic  matter,  and 
all  combined  to  make  the  soil  heavy  and  acid.  Since 
drainage  by  means  of  underground  conduits  has  be- 
come common  in  Great  Britain,  the  practice  of  liming 
has  been  abandoned  in  many  cases,  and  where  it  is 
still  kept  up  much  smaller  applications  are  found  to 
produce  the  best  results. 

Lime    is    one    of    the    oldest    and*  most    common 


•  A  book  ujKJn  the  liminK  of  lanJ  appeareu  iu  Boston  in  1799.  This  wat 
an  American  edition  of  .lames  .\nderson's  "Essay  on  Quicklime,  as  a  Cement 
and  ak  a  Manure."— L.  H.  B. 


Corrr    Crops    to    Precede    Liming.  305 

amendments  or  indirect  fertilizers  in  some  localities, 
but  at  least  99  per  cent  of  the  arable  land  in  the 
United  States  has  never  been  limed,  nor  is  it  likely 
to  be  in  the  near  future.  The  virgin  soil  usually 
contains  an  abundance  of  available  nutrients.  The 
loose  texture  of  the  soil,  the  dry  climate  and  cloud- 
less skies,  so  common  west  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
all  tend  to  promote  nitrification  and  to  prevent 
acidity;  hence,  as  the  country  becomes  older,  there  is 
likely  to  be  a  lack  of  vegetable  mold  or  undecom- 
posed  organic  matter,  and  the  planting  of  cover 
crops  is  likely  to  precede  liming. 

In  all  this  vast  territory,  embracing  more  than 
one -third  of  the  arable  land  of  the  United  States, 
the  price  of  lime  has  been  so  great  as  to  preclude 
its  use  on  lands  even  where  the  limestone  and  the 
land  to  be  treated  were  in  juxtaposition.  In  other 
cases,  the  cost  of  transportation  equaled  or  exceeded 
the  first  cost  of  the  lime.  On  the  friable,  fertile 
soils  of  the  prairies  tlie  plow  liberated  year  by  year 
all  the  nourishment  which  the  crops  required.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  conditions  in  many  districts 
of  the  United  States  have  precluded  the  use  of 
lime  in  agriculture. 

When  first  removed  from  the  kiln,  lime  weighs 
about  75  pounds*  to  the  heaped  bushel;  that  from 
shells  weighs  less  than  that  from  limestone.  A  ton 
of  limestone  converted  into  caustic  lime  (CaO)  weighs 
between   1,100   and    1,200    pounds;    hence  it  is   econ- 

*  Seventy-five  pounds  of  stone  lime  and  50  pounds  of  air-slaked  lime  are 
sold  for  a  bushel  at  the  kilns  at  Union  Springs,  N.  Y. 


306  The    Fn-fility    of  the    Land. 

oiny  to  burn  the  lime  near  where  the  stones  are 
(luarried,  since  it  weighs  but  three -fiftlis  as  niudi  as 
limestone.  In  slaking,  lime  takes  up  consideral)!*- 
quantities  of  water ;  hencre  a  ton  of  slaked  or  li\  - 
drated  lime  contains  really  l)ut  three -fourths  as  much 
lime  as  a  ton  unslaked.  A  heaped  bushel  of  unslaktd 
lime  makes  one  and  one -half  bushels  of  slaked  lime  : 
therefore,  it  should  be  transported  before  it  is  slaked. 
When  caustic;  lime  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  sonic 
time  it  absorbs  moisture  and  carbonic  acid  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  becomes  air- slaked  or  carbonate  of 
lime  (CaCOj),  or  limestone.  It  is  now  in  the  form 
of  a  fine  powder,  much  finer  than  ground  lime- 
stone, and  is  of  some  value  as  an  indirect  fertilizer, 
and  furnishes  plant -food  when  applied  to  soils  which 
are  deficient  in  lime.  Old  i)asturcs  and  sandy  soils 
frequently  respond  to  a  dressing  of  air-slaked  lime, 
but  in  most  cases  it  is  far  better  to  purchase  caustic 
lime,  and  by  adding  water  convert  it  into  the  hydrate 
of  lime,  which  acts  moi-e  energetically  than  air- slaked 
lime  does. 

Recently  hydrated,  or  "  biting''  lime,  applied  to 
sandy  soil  roughens  it;  tliat  is,  it  acts  upon  the  i)ar- 
ticles  of  which  the  soil  is  composed,  thereby  liberating 
the  mineral  matter.  (Iradually  the  lime  i)asses  down- 
ward to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  where  it  may  be- 
come bound  uj)  with  some  of  the  liberated  mineral 
matter  and  the  finer  particles  of  earth,  and  forms  a 
hard-pan  of  greater  or  less  tenacity,  which  arrests 
the  too  free  passage  of  water  downwai'd.  All  of 
these    complex    actions    improve    sandy    soils.     When 


Beneficial    Effects    of   Liming.  307 

soils  naturally  have  a  superabuiidaiiee  of  lime,  similar 
action  may  take  place  to  such  an  extent  as  to  form 
what  is  known  as  "lime-pan,"  whicih  may  be  neai-jy 
impervious  to  water,  and  hence  detrimental.  Nitri- 
fication usually  j^oes  on  too  rapidly  in  light  soils,  and 
hence  the  humus  is  depleted  and  the  power  to  h(dd 
moisture  weakened,  and  therefore  lime  is  not  usually 
api)lied  to  sandy  soils,  as  it  is  to  clay,  to  hasten 
nitiitlcation.  The  l)encficial  effects  of  lime  in  ai'- 
resting  the  too  free  passage  of  water  in  saiuly  soils 
should  not  he  destroyed  l)y  plowing  at  diffei'ent 
depths,  and  hence  care  should  be  taken  to  assist  the 
formation  of  a  solidified  sub -stratum  by  continuously 
l)lo\ving  at  tlie  same  depth,  thereby  securing  the 
beneficial  action  whicli  results  from  the  trampling  of 
the  horses  and  the  pressure  of  the  plow  on  the 
bottom    of    the    furi-ow.      (See  page  77.) 

Recent  experiments  havt^  thrown  much  light  on 
the  effects  of  liming  land,  yet  lime  acts  in  such  a 
variety  of  ways,  and  produces  su(di  complex  changes, 
that  a  wide  field  is  still  open  to  the  investigator. 
It  is  known  that  in  rare  cases  it  may  furnish 
needed  plant -food,  that  it  constitutes  from  1  to  50 
per  cent  of  the  ash  of  plants,  and  that  it  helps  to 
l)ring  about  physical,  chemical  and  biological  changes 
in  the  soil.  When  applied  to  clay  soils,  it  binds 
the  fine  particles  together,  or  flocculates  them.  This 
results  in  opening  channels  which  augment  friability 
and  porosity,  and  produces  conditions  which  allow 
the  freer  passage  of  water  downwards,  and  of  mois- 
ture upwards  by  capillarity;   air  and  heat  are  allowed 


.308  The    Fn'tilitt/    <>/   fh»     Land. 

freer  passage  into  and  through  the  land,  the  cost  of 
plowing  is  diminished,  locked  up  mineral  matter  lib- 
erated, nitrification  promoted,  and  a  more  comforta- 
ble environment  is  secured  for  plant  roots. 

Caustic  lime  decomposes  certain  mineral  com- 
pounds, especially  those  containing  potash,  and  makes 
them  available;  that  is,  changes  potential  into  actual 
plant-food.  It  also  corrects  acidity,  and  in  doing  so 
unfits  the  soil  for  the  growth  of  many  coarse  and 
undesirable  plants,  while  greatly  improving  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  the  growth  of  most  of  the 
higher  and  more  useful  kinds  of  plants.  Lime  acts 
chemiirally  on  the  soil  in  many  ways  not  well  un- 
understood,  but  its  power  to  form  useful  com- 
pounds, such  as  hydrated  silicates,  is  proved  beyond 
a  doubt.  It  is  believed  that  some,  if  not  most,  of 
the  available  mineral  fertilizing  matter  in  the  soil  is 
held  in  the  form  of  hydrated  silicates.  If  this  be 
so,  additional  light  is  thrown  on  the  beneficial  action 
of  lime   and  some  other  substances. 

Caustic  lime  acts  energetically  on  the  organic 
matter  in  the  soil  ;  hence  beneficial  effects  may 
be  expected  when  it  is  applied  to  peaty  or  other 
soils  having  a  superabundance  of  undecomposed  veg- 
etable matter.  Clayey  soils,  because  of  their  ten- 
dency to  remain  cold,  moist  and  compact,  tend  to 
become  sour,  and  the  plant-food  which  they  contain 
is  inert.  All  this  produces  uncomfortable  conditions 
for  the  better  plants,  unless  an  unusual  amount  of 
hibor  is  expended  in  fitting  the  soil.  An  applica- 
tion   of    caustic    lime    may    change    for    the    better,    iu 


Lime    Influences   Nitrification.  309 

a  marked  degree,  many  or  all  of  these  undesirable 
eonditions.  Since  clayey  lands  are  usually  too  com- 
pact at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  it  is  well  to  plow 
at  varying  depths,  shallow  in  spring  and  deep  in  the 
summer  and  fall,  that  the  tendency  to  form  a  hard- 
pan,  due  to  liberal  applications  of  lime,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  plow  and  the  tramping  of  the  horses' 
feet  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  may  be  largely 
overcome.  Dead  plants  or  other  organic  matter  can 
serve  as  plant -food  only  when  they  are  decomposed, 
and  the  albuminoids  changed  into  other  nitrogen- 
forms  and  the  mineral  matter  re -mineralized,  or  so 
far  parted  from  itvS  associates  as  to  be  acceptal)le  to 
growing  plants. 

Liming  land  usually  accelerates  nitrification  and 
fermentation.  It  may  correct  acidity  and  produce 
alkalinity,  but  if  the  alkalinity  is  too  great,  fer- 
mentation and  decay  decrease.  Usually  lime  is  ap- 
plied to  the  land  or  manure  in  such  small  quanti- 
ties as  to  hasten  instead  of  retard  fermentation  and 
nitrification.  Most  manures  are  injured  when  treated 
with  lime,  as  ammonia  is  likely  to  be  driven  off, 
but  it  may  be  used  advantageously  to  hasten  the 
rotting  of  coarse  manures,  such  as  are  composed 
largely  of  straw  and  maize  stalks,  if  they  are  piled 
in  layers  with  lime  between,  and  the  mass  thor- 
oughly wetted  and  covered  with  earth.  Liming  land, 
especially  that  which  contains  much  organic  matter, 
and  that  which  is  over- damp,  tends  to  prevent  rust 
and  smut,  and  malformation  of  the  roots  of  turnips, 
beets  and  similar  crops.      On  the  other  hand,  an   ap- 


310  Thf    FerfUUy    of  the    Txind. 

plication  of  lime  in  any  form  is  ])elieved  to  pro- 
mote the  scab  of  potatoes.  In  some  experiments,  eon- 
(Ineted  at  Cornell  in  IHOG,  to  determine  the  amonnts 
^>f  soil  moistnre  conserved  or  lost,  the  workmen  re- 
)narked  that  one  plat  was  "mealy,"  and  did  not 
crust  over,  as  the  others  did.  The  plat  referred  to 
l)roved  to  l>e  the  one  that  had  been  limed.  So  far. 
experiments  show  that  lime  does  not  kill  win*- 
worms,  slugs  and  beetles,  but  it  may  so  change  the 
character  of  the  soil  as  to  induce  them  to  find  niore 
congenial   (conditions. 

Lime  should  be  removed  from  the  kiln  soon 
after  it  is  })urned,  and  i)laced  in  convenient  piles  on 
the  field  where  it  is  to  ])e  si)read.  If  a  slight  de- 
l)ression  is  made  and  the  ground  smoothed,  and  from 
tliree  to  five  l)usliels  are  thrown  in  a  i)ile  and  the 
mass  covered  with  earth,  it  will  slake  in  a  few  days 
if  the  ground  is  moist,  ])ut  if  dry  some  water  should 
))e  added  l)efore  it  is  covered.  If  slaked  quickly  by 
a  large  addition  of  water,  the  mass  does  not  break 
up  into  as  fine  a  powder  as  wlien  slaked  slowly, 
with  the  air  largely  excluded.  Therefore,  to  secure 
the  best  and  cheapest  results,  the  slaking  should  pro- 
ceed only  moderately  fast  and  in  the  presence  of  as 
little  ail"  as  ])ossil)lc.  Lime  for  i)last«'ring-mortar  is 
l)i'ei)are(l  by  placing  it  in  a  slaking  box  and  sub- 
merging in  water.  The  milk  of  lime  jiroduced  is 
then  drawn  off,  mixed  with  enough  sand  to  form  a 
stiff  j)ast(\  which  is  ]>iled  up  and  left  from  two  to 
four  weeks,  that  all  the  jiai-ticles  may  be  fully 
slaked,    otherwise    thev    mav    slake    in    the    wall     and 


Mild   and    Caustic    Lime.  311 

produce  "smallpox  pits."  It  will  be  seen  that  by  this 
method  the  air  is  largely  excluded  from  the  lime 
until  it  is  used,  thereby  preserving  its  caustic  and 
binding  or  flocculating  qualities.  Air -slaked  lime 
does  not  make  good  mortar,  neither  does  it  act  ener- 
getically on  the  soil,  since  it  is  in  its  mild,  not 
caustic,  state. 

What  has  been  said  about  slaking  lime  intended 
for  mortar,  is  to  emphasize  the  need  of  excluding 
air,  so  far  as  possible,  when  slaking  lime  for  agri- 
cultural purposes,  and  until  it  is  applied  to  the 
land.  If  it  can  be  applied  to  and  incorporated  with 
the  fresh -turned  surface  soil,  in  the  caustic  state,  it 
will  be  far  more  efficient  than  when  applied  in  the 
mild,  or  air- slaked  condition.  True,  this  hydrated 
or  -'biting"  lime  (CaCOH]^),  will  become  mild  lime 
(CaCOj),  but  before  fully  reaching  this  stage  it  will 
have  acted  beneficiall}'  and  energetically,  and  when  it 
has  reached  that  state  it  will  have  lost  none  of  its 
usefulness  as   mild  lime. 

Lime  properly  slaked  is  difficult  to  handle  and 
spread,  as  it  runs  wdth  nearly  the  facility  of  water. 
The  earth  covering,  mixed  w^ith  the  lime,  tends  to 
overcome  this  difficulty.  If  the  mixed  material  is 
thrown  onto  a  stone -boat  or  sled  it  can  be  spread, 
with  the  wind,  satisfactorily.  Since  lime  tends  to  sink 
into  the  soil,  it  is  best  applied  on  plowed  and  par- 
tially fitted  land,  and  then  thoroughly  incorporated 
by  surface  tillage.  On  permanent  grass  lands,  for 
various  reasons,  it  is  best  applied  in  the  fall.  It  may 
be  predicted  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  where  lime 


312  The    Ffrtilify    of  (he    Land. 

is  likely  to  be  most  beneficial;  viz.,  on  sour,  peaty 
soils,  and  those  having  large  amounts  of  undecom- 
posed  vegetable  matter ;  on  heavy  or  clayey  lands, 
in  conjunction  with  barn  manures  and  other  coarse 
organic  substances;  and  on  sandy  lands,  if  in  con- 
junction with  a  system  of  green  manuring.  The 
old  saying  that  "  liming  the  land  makes  the  fathers 
rich  but  the  sons  poor,"  has  a  grain  of  truth  in  it, 
for  lime  may  easily  be  made  to  deplete  the  soil  of 
humus,  and  even  mineral  constituents,  to  the  point 
at  which  it  no  longer  produces  profitable  harvests; 
but,  when  judiciously  used,  in  conjunction  with 
crude  organic  matter,  it  is  often  one  of  the  cheapest 
of  the  indirect  fertilizers,  as  it  serves  to  liberate 
plant -food  which  without  it  would  long  remain  use- 
less. 

Wherever  lime  can  be  secured  cheaply,  from  10 
to  15  cents  per  bushel,  it  should  be  used  at  the 
rate  of  from  20  to  40  bushels  per  acre  in  a  small 
way  at  first,  and  the  results  most  carefully  noted; 
for  only  by  actual  application  can  it  be  certainly 
known  whether  or  not  it  will  pay.  Theorizing  may 
be  good,  analyses  of  the  soil  better,  but  the  way  to 
solve  all  such  problems  is  to  put  clean-cut  questions 
to  the  land  and  the  plants  which  grow  upon  it,  and 
while  listening  to  the  answers,  note  the  points  which 
have  been  settled  by  the  chemist  and  the  experi- 
menter, that  additional  light  may  be  thrown  upon 
what  is  seen,  or  appears  to  be  seen.  The  chemist 
in  the  laboratory  and  the  farmer  in  the  field  must 
work  together  in  the  future. 


Acidity   of  Soils.  313 

LIMING    TO    CORRECT    ACIDITY    OP    THE    SOIL. 

No  recent  experiments  with  lime  have  attracted 
more  attention  than  those  made  at  tlie  Rhode  Island 
Station,*  and  since  they  are  destined  to  be  far- 
reaching  in  their  results,  it  is  a  pleasure  to  quote 
them  freely.  Of  necessity,  but  brief  extracts  can 
be  made,  yet  it  is  hoped  that  the  student  will  be- 
come sufficiently  interested  to  read  the  full  text  of 
the  publication.  The  facts  reached  are  doubly  val- 
uable, since  they  give  the  results  secured  in  both 
field  and  laboratory,  and  the  only  regret  is  that 
space  does  not  permit  making  fuller  and  more  con- 
nected quotations. 

"So  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  no 
one  in  this  country  has  thus  far  definitely  called  at- 
tention to  the  existence  of  an  injurious  degree  of 
acidity  in  uplands  or  naturally  well -drained  soils, 
and  at  the  same  time  pointed  out  a  simple  and 
practical  means  for  its  recognition.  American  agri- 
cultural chemists  appear  not  only  to  have  been  of 
the  opinion  that  an  injurious  degree  of  soil  acidity 
is  to  be  found  only  in  muck  and  peat  swamps,  and 
in  spots  where  stagnant  water  occurs,  but  they  make 
no  mention  of  making  tests  for  acidity  as  a  means 
of   recognizing  a  deficiency  of   carbonate  of   lime." 

"E.   W.  Hilgard,t  in  the  course  of  his  work  upon 

♦"The  Acidity  of  Uplands  Soils"  by  H.  J.  Wheeler.  B.  L.  Hartwell  and 
J.  M.  Tucker;  being  a  portion  of  the  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Rhode 
Island   Agricultural   Experiment   Station.    1895, 

t  Tenth   United  States  Census. 


314  Thf    Fertility    of  the    l/ind. 

the  soils  of  the  southern  states,  particularly  in  con- 
nection with  the  sandy  pine  lands  of  Mississippi, 
has  called  attention  to  their  need  of  lime,  though 
we  find  no  mention  of  tests  for  acidity  having  been 
made  in  connection  therewith;  he  states,  however, 
in  a  private  communication,  that  the  recognition  of 
their  acidity  was  what  led  to  his  re(!ommendation  of 
the  application  of  this  substance.  FIc  furthermore 
says:  'You  are  doubtless  right  in  thinking  that 
attention  should  be  more  definitely  called  to  the 
importance  of  soil  acidity  as  an  unfavorable  agent 
in  agriculture  outside  of  swamp  or  marsh  lands.' 
A.  Voelcker*  says  that  'There  is  a  ready  t€st  for 
ascertaining  whether  a  soil  is  likely  to  contain  an 
injurious  constituent.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to 
put  a  strip  of  litmus  in  contact  with  wet  soil;  if 
the  blue  color  of  the  test  paper  turns  rapidly  red,  the 
soil  is  certain  to  contain  something  injurious  to  plant 
life.'  The  soils  which  he  aj)pears  particularly  to 
have  examined  were  reclaimed  marshes,  muck,  etc., 
or  what  would  be  termed  unusual  soils.  Several 
French  writerst  refer  to  the  acid  soils  of  Brittany, 
Limousin,  and  other  sections,  which  in  many  in- 
stances have  been  wonderfully  benefited  by  the  use 
of  lime.  Many  of  the  soils  referred  to  appear  to 
have  been  upland,  or  well  drained.  Schultz-Lupitz,t 
in  speaking  of  the    sandy  soil  of  his  section,  in  Ger- 

•  Journal   Royal   Agricultural  Society,    England,  1865.  p.  11."). 

t  See   particularly  Miintz  and   Girard.    I^es    Engrais,  tome  3,  Paris,  1891,  pp. 
190,  191. 

X  Die  Kalidungung  auf  leichtem    Boden.     Berlin,   1880,  «.  25. 


Opinions   of  Authorities.  315 

many,  refers  to  its  being  poor  in  lime,  and,  there- 
fore, becoming  sour  and  unfit  for  tlie  economical 
production  of  plants;  he  makes,  however,  no  refer- 
enoe  to  the  use  of  litmus  paper  nor  of  any  other 
means  of  definitely  ascertaining  its  acidity,  but  ap- 
pears to  infer  that  it  was  acid  from  the  beneficial 
action  of  lime  upon  it.  E.  W.  Hilgard  says:* 
'■'Saurer  Sandboden"t  is  the  expression  I  have  fre- 
quently heard  applied  in  Berlin  to  the  uplands  of 
that  region  and  the  Mark  Brandenburg  at  lai'ge.' 
W.  Detmart  states  distinctly  that  not  all  soils  which 
are  excessively  rich  in  hunuis  are  acid,  and,  on  the 
contrary,  that  sandy  soils  sometimes  give  an  acid  re- 
action; and  he  mentions  in  the  same  connection  the 
value  of  the  litmus  paper  test  as  an  indicator  of 
this  condition.  Th.  Hubener*^  likewise  calls  attention 
to   the   frequent   acidity  of   sandy   soils. 

"8.  W.  Johnson  11  states  that  'a  soil  that  is  fit 
for  agricultural  purposes  contains  little  or  no  free 
acid  except  carbonic  acid,  and  oftentimes  gives  an 
alkaline  reaction  with  test  papers,'  while  Storer^i 
asserts  that  'cultivated  soils,  though  sometimes  neu- 
tral to  test  papers,  as  a  rule  exhibit  a  faint  acid 
reaction;  and  experience  with  water  culture  has 
shown    that    slightly  acid    solutions    are    favorable    for 

♦Quoted   from   a  private   pommunieation   by   permission. 

t  Sour,  sandy   soil. 

tDie   Landw.  Versuchs-Stationen,  14,  s.  277. 

§  Schultze's  Lehrbuch   der   Chemie   fiir  Landwirthe,    Vierte    Auflage,   s.    588. 

y  How  Crops  Feed,  p.  229. 

II  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.,  p.  148. 


316  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

the  gfrowth  of  plants.  But  any  excess  of  soluble 
acids  in  the  soil  would  be  highly  detrimental.' 
Jas.  F.  \V.  Johnston,*  in  speaking  of  soiLs  which 
are  moist  and  where  much  vegetable  matter  abounds, 
says  that  '  the  effect  of  this  superabundance  of  acid 
matter  is,  on  the  one  hand,  to  arrest  the  further 
natural  decay  of  the  organic  matter,  and,  on  the  other, 
to  render  the  soil  unfavorable  to  the  healthy  growth 
of  young  or  tender  plants.'  Voelckert  says  regard- 
ing the  action  of  soil  upon  litnnis  paper :  '  If  the 
blue  color  of  the  test  paper  turns  rapidly  red,  the 
soil  is  certain  to  contain  something  injurious  to  plant 
life.  All  good  and  fertile  soils  either  have  no  effect 
upon  red  or  blue  litmus  paper,  or  show  a  slight 
alkaline  reaction;  that  is  to  say,  in  a  wet  condition 
they  restore  the  blue  color  to  reddened  litmus 
paper.'  A.  Mayert  states  that  the  so-called  sour 
humus  is  really  somewhat  sour,  and  that  on  this  ac- 
count is,  without  doubt,  injurious  to  plants.  Shultz- 
Lupitz,  as  heretofore  cited,  speaks  of  sandy  soils  be- 
coming sour  and  unfit  for  the  profitable  production 
of  plants.  Mulder  §  claims  that  'a  good  soil  should 
turn  a  red  litmus  paper  blue'  (that  is,  it  should  be 
alkaline,  and  not  acid).  A.  Stutzerll  says  that  'a 
large  amount  of  acid  in   soils  is  injurious  to  all  cul- 


•  Lectures  on  the  Application  of  Chemistry  and  Geology  to  Agriculture,  New 
York,  p.  403. 

tA.  Voelcker,  Jour.  Royal  ABricultural  Society,  England,  1865,  p.  115. 
ILehrbuch  der  .\(frikulturcheniie.     Heidelberg,  1886,  s.  289. 
?  Cheiiiie   der   .\ckerkrunie   Bd.     1.  s.  :»63,  :«M. 

•  I>>itfmlfii   der  Dungerlebre.   Vierte   Auflage,   s.  78. 


Sour   Humus   and    Lime.  317 

tivated  plants.'  Th.  Hubener*  states  that  'hardly 
anything  has  so  great  an  influence  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  the  vegetation  as  the  condition  of  the  humus.' 
In  this  respect  plants  may  be  divided  into  three 
(dasses:  one  which  thrives  best  where  the  humus  is 
sour,  another  which  refuses  to  grow  where  sour 
liumus  is  present,  and  a  third  and  the  largest  class, 
the  individuals  of  which  can  accommodate  them- 
selves to  either  condition;  and  also  that  where  a 
soil  is  recognized  by  means  of  litmus  paper  as  being 
sour,  the  acidity  must  be  overcome  by  the  use  of 
marl   or   lime.  ***;!= 

"Certain  cultivated  plants  have  been  found  to 
nearly  or  quite  succumb  until  lime  has  been  ap- 
plied, after  which  they  have  made  a  magnificent 
growth;  characteristic  among  these  may  be  mentioned 
common  red  clover,  spinach,  lettuce,  beets  and  tim- 
othy {Plileum  jjratense) .  Upon  our  soil,  when  left 
to  itself  for  some  time,  certain  plants  seem  eventu- 
ally to  predominate,  while  others  gradually  disappear. 
Considering  that  the  soil  contains  no  carbonate  of 
lime,  to  the  absence  of  which,  together  with  other 
basic  compounds,  its  acidity  is  apparently  due,  it  will 
be  obvious,  in  connection  with  what  has  been  said 
above,  that  the  natural  vegetation  would  be  of  a  type 
suited  to  such  a  soil.  Having  observed,  therefore, 
what  plants  thrive  here  naturally,  the  recognition 
of  similar  plants  elsewhere  would  lead  to  the  natu- 
ral conclusion  that  there  similar  conditions  may 
also   exist.      Those    plants    which    have   appeared    par- 

*  Scliiiize's  Lehrbnch  tier  Chemie  fiir  Landwirthe,  Vierte  Aofla^e,  s.  5SS,  589. 


318  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

ticularly  characteristic  of  acid  soil  iu  our  immediate 
vicinity  ai-c  tlie  following:  Birdfoot  violet  ( Viola 
pfilata) ,  wild  or  beard  grass  {Andropofjon  sroparius) . 
species  of  St.  John's-wort  {HijpericH)n) ,  common  or 
soft  rush  {J uncus  effusuti) ,  wood  rush  {Luzula  vain 
pestris),  and  several  mosses;  the  appearance  of  com- 
mon soi'rel  {Runiex  AcetoHella)  is  common  as  soon  iis 
the  soil  is  cultivated.  In  addition  to  one  or  two  <tl 
the  plants  above  mentioned,  Ruflfin  speaks  of  the 
pine  as  a  plant  whi<di  thrives  ])cst  upon  soil  poor  in 
lime.  Various  French*  and  (jerman  writers  state 
that  clover  fails  to  thrive  upon  land  deficient  in  <'ar- 
bonate  of  lime,  and,  as  above  stated,  we  have  found 
the  same  to  l)e  true  of  timothy;  so  that  by  observing 
not  only  those  plants  which  thrive,  but  also  those 
which  fail  to  thrive,  indirect  evidence  of  the  needs 
of  the  soil  may  be,  in  a  measure,  afforded.  In  the 
course  of  ol)scrvations  upon  the  natui-e  of  the  wild 
plants,  cultivated  gi-asses  and  clovei-.  not  oidy  in 
many  parts  of  Rhode  Island,  but  also  in  some  parts 
of  Massachusetts  and  Conm^cticut,  the  soil  apjiears  to 
be  prol)ably  in  somewhat  the  same  condition  as  our 
own;  quite  marked  changes  in  this  resptM-t  are  notice- 
able as  one  travels  wcstwai'd  from  Boston.  At  a 
distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles,  clover  and  tim- 
othy are,  in  certain  sections,  found  to  largely  disap- 
pear, and  farmers  in  such  sections  have  stated  that 
clover  cannot  be  nuide  to  grow,  and  that  timothy 
runs  out    quickly.       In   fa(!t.    statements    to    the    same 

•  Miintz  ami  Oirard:     Les  Engrais,  tome  3,  p.  190:  also  Deherain:  Traite  Je 
Ckimie  Ajfricole,  1892,  p.  531. 


Acidity    in    High    and    Low    Land.  319 

effect  have  recently  come  to  our  notice  from  New 
York,  Connecticut  and  several  of  the  eastern  sea- 
board states." 

The  Rhode  Island  report  makes  the  following 
sunnnary  of   the  literature: 

"Tlie  removal  of  plants  from  the  soil,  and  the 
use  of  certain  fertilizers,  doubtless  exluiust  the  lime 
and  other  basic  ingredients  of  the  soil  more  rapidly 
than  would  be  the  case  were  nature  allowed  to  take 
her  course. 

"That  an  acid  condition  is  liable  to  result,  in 
consequence  of  the  above-mentioned  operations,  par- 
ticularly in  the  case  of  soils  derived  from  rocks  de- 
ficient in  basic  ingredients,  we  believe  to  l)e  a  rea- 
sonable assumption. 

"While  some  plants,  like  clover,  timothy  and 
beets,  appear  to  be  injured  by  a  lack  of  carbonate  of 
lime  or  l)y  the  resulting  acidity  of  the  soil,  others 
appear  to  thrive  Ijcst  under  such  conditions. 

"A  strongly  marked  reddening  of  blue  litmus 
paper  seems  to  be  a  simple  and  effective  indication 
of  the  condition  of  a  soil  in  the  above-mentioned 
particulars. 

"The  value  of  a  satisfactory  method  for  determin- 
ing the  relative  acidity  of  soils  would  seem  to  be 
great. 

"A  dangerous  degree  of  acidity,  or  at  least  a  fatal 
lack  of  carbonate  of  lime,  appears  to  exist  in  upland 
and  naturally  well -drained  soils,  and  is  not  confined 
to  muck  and  peat  swamps  and  very  wet  lands,  as 
most    American   and  manv    other    writers  seem   to    as- 


820  The    FeriiVit]!    of   the    fMnd. 

sume,  in  view  of  which  it  appears  that  the  test  for 
acidity  should  be  more  generally  applied  to  such  soils. 

"That  this  condition  of  upland  soils  has  not  been 
more  fully  recognized  heretofore  is  not  surprising,  for 
the  reason  that  the  failure,  or  partial  failure,  of  cer- 
tain crops,  has  been  attributed  to  winter-killing,  poor 
germination  of  seeds,  drought,  excessive  moisture,  or 
attacks  of  insects  or  fungi.  Upon  soils  where  certain 
plants  are  injured  only  to  a  limited  extent  by  acidity, 
others  would  be  expected  to  thrive  best  of  all,  in 
consequence  of  which  it  i.s  not  surprising  that  the 
cause  for  the  partial  failure  of  certain  crops  upon 
them  has  not  been  suspected. 

"The  inefficiency  of  land  plaster,  as  compared  with 
air-slaked  lime,  in  the  culture  of  beets,  and  in  over- 
coming the  ill  effect  of  sulfate  of  ammonia,  as  well 
as  the  highly  beneficial  results  from  the  use  of  caustic 
magnesia  and  carbonate  of  soda,  all  tend  to  further 
strengthen  the  position  that  the  fault  of  the  soil  in 
question  is  a  lack  of  basic  ingredients,  to  which  the 
presence  of  noxious  compounds,  which  may  partly  or 
wholly  give  rise  to  the  acid    reaction,   is  attril)utable." 

By  the  courtesy  of  Profes.sor  11.  J.  Wheeler,  of 
the  Rhode  Island  Station,  I  am  permitted  to  make 
extracts  from  a  paper  recently  read  by  him  at  Wash- 
ington:* 

"Soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  Experiment 
Station,  at  Kingston,  R.  I.,  it  became  noticeable  that 

•"Tlio  Recognition  of  the  Acidity  of  Upland  Soils  as  an  Indication  of 
their  Need  of  Calcium  Carbonate."  Read  before  the  Association  of  American 
AKriculiurul   Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  November  11,  1886. 


Failure    of   Timothy    and    Glover.  321 

the  farmers,  at  least  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
state,  grew  but  little  if  any  clover,  and  upon  in- 
quiry among  them,  it  was  stated  that  it  could  not  be 
grown,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  winter-killed.  The 
only  place  where  clover  could  be  seen  to  any  extent 
was  in  a  few  fields  near  stables  and  upon  an  occa- 
sional farm  where  wood  ashes  had  previously  been 
used.  Timothy  failed  to  endure  for  more  than  one  or 
two  years,  while  red  top  and  Rhode  Island  bent 
were  the  two  grasses  most  universally  found.  On 
seeding  land  upon  the  college  farm  with  clover  and 
mixed  grass  seed,  it  was  found  to  be  practically  im- 
possible to  secure  a  stand  of  timothy  and  clover, 
though  a  fair  crop  of  Rhode  Island  bent  and  red 
top  could  be  obtained.  It  was  observed  that  with 
an  increased  application  of  anunonium  sulfate,  the 
crop  of  Indian  corn  was  lessened  instead  of  in- 
creased, and  where  the  full  ration  of  nitrogen  in  this 
form  was  used,  the  yield  was  much  less  than  on  an 
adjacent  plat  treated  the  same  in  other  respects,  but 
where  nitrogen  was  not  applied.  This  condition  has 
continued  uninterruptedly  up  to  the  present  time. 

"In  searching  for  a  cause  for  the  ill  effect  of 
the  ammonium  sulfate,  non- nitrification,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  a  poisonous  effect  of  the  ammonium 
sulfate  or  of  compounds  produced  by  its  reaction 
within  the  soil,  were  considered.  All  of  the  condi- 
tions essential  to  nitrification  seemed  to  be  right, 
provided  the  nitrifying  organisms  were  present,  unless 
perhaps  the  difficulty  was  due  to  an  unusual  acidity 
or    alkalinity  of    the   soil,  which    reaction   was   already 


322  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

well  known  to  exert  a  marked  iuflueiuM'  upon  nitri- 
fication in  various  media.  An  examination  of  the 
soil  by  means  of  blue  litmus  paper  revealed  the  faet 
that  it  was  decidedly  acid.  In  consequence,  the  idea 
of   the  use  of   lime  naturally  suggested  itself. 

"In  recognition  of  the  writings  of  American  agri- 
cultural chemists,  in  which  they  note  the  effecrt  of 
sourness  upon  the  growth  of  plants  in  lowlands  or 
wet  meadows,  as  well  as  those  of  European  writers, 
some  of  whom  do  not  confine  their  references  to 
swamp  lands  exclusively,  and  to  lowlands  naturally 
wet,  the  idea  suggested  itself  that  the  acidity  of  the 
upland  soil  at  Kingston  might  be  suflicnent  to  exert 
a  marked  influence  upon  the  growth  of  various  agri- 
cultural plants.  Accordingly,  in  181)']  an  experiment 
was  begun  which  has  been  continu(;d  since  without 
intermission,  in  which  nearly  150  different  varieties  of 
plants  have  been  tested  in  this  particular.  In  order 
to  eliminate  in  this  experiment,  so  far  as  possible. 
the  influence  of  the  acidity  of  the  soil  upon  nitri- 
fication, sodium  nitrate  was  employed  upon  two  plats 
in  connection  with  muriate  of  potash  and  dissolved 
boneblack,  one  of  the  plats  receiving  an  additional  ap- 
plication of  air-slaked  lime.  In  the  (;oui>;e  of  this 
experiment,  some  of  the  most  striking  differences, 
not  only  in  members  of  the  same  family  of  plants, 
but  also  even  in  species  belonging  to  the  same  genus, 
have  been  observed.  When  fresh  applications  of  lime 
had  been  made  rye  was  benefited  little,  if  at  all, 
and  sometimes  apparently  injured,  while  oats  showed 
a  slight  benefit,  wheat  a  very  marked  one,  and  barle.v 


Effects   of   Lime   on   Melons.  '52:5 

even  more  than  wheat.  Serradella,  Inpines  and  out-  or 
two  other  leguminous  plants  have  l)een  invariably  in- 
jured b}-  liming,  while  red  clover,  peas  and  certain 
others  have  been  benefited  decidedly  therel)y.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  instances  is  that  of  watermelons 
and  muskmelons.  The  former  in  two  trials  were  in- 
jured by  liming,  and  in  the  second  trial  in  a  most 
serious  degree;  while  the  latter  were  a  total  failure 
where  lime  was  not  applied."         *         ^c         *         * 

"In  the  course  of  these  expei-iinents  it  has  been 
found  that  calcium  sulfate  does  not  prevent  the  ill 
effect  of  ammonium  sulfate,  while  air- slaked  lime 
does  it  effectually.  Magnesium  sulfate  fails  likewise, 
while  caustic  magnesia  is  highly  effectual." 

;ji  ;■:  ;•:  ;■;  ;;:  ;i;  *  ^;  :(< 

"From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  great  probabilit}'  that  the  largei-  portion  of  the 
state  of  Rhode  Island  is  suffering  from  a  defi- 
ciency of  carbonate  of  lime,  a  fact  which  in  many 
instances  would  not  have  been  surmised  from  a  de- 
termination of  calcium  oxid  in  a  hydrochloric  acid 
extract  of  the  soil,  for  in  the  soil  of  the  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Kingston  there  Avas  found  upon  the 
hill,  by  this  method,  .45  per  cent  of  calcium  oxid, 
and  upon  the  plain  .57  per  cent,  in  l)oth  of  which 
"ases  one  would  have  been  disinclined  to  believe  that 
such  a  serious  deficiency  of  carbonate  of  lime  existed. 
In  one  experiment  at  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment 
Station,  gypsum  was  applied  at  such  a  rate  that  the 
equivalent  of  .2  per  cent  of  calcium  oxid  was  pres- 
ent in  the  soil,  yet   without    overcoming  the  ill    effect 


024  Thf    Ferdlitif    of  the    Tjund. 

of  aniinoiiiuni  sulfate.  In  aiiotluT  rxiK'riment,  {gyp- 
sum ropresenting  about  .13  per  ceut  of  caleium  oxid 
failed  to  have  tlie  same  beneficial  effect  upon  the 
growth  of  beets  and  barley  as  an  equivalent  amount 
ill  form  of  air-slaked  lime.  It  must  be  obvious, 
therefore,  that  in  certain  instances  soils  may  contain 
even  a  high  percentage  of  lime,  all  of  which  may  be 
in  such  combination  within  the  soil  that  an  acid  re- 
action is  i)ossible,  whereby  plants  are  injured,  even  if 
nitrates  are  supplied,  in  which  case  calcium  carbon- 
ate or  other  alkaline  agents  arc  cfficiiuit  remedies  It 
will  be  seen,  furthermore,  that  where  such  soil -con- 
ditions exist,  a  test  for  acidity  gives  a  better  indi- 
cation of  the  needs  of  the  soil  in  respect  to  lime 
than  an  analysis  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  extract, 
and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  many  soils,  not  only 
in  Rhode  Island,  but  some  also  from  Connecticut, 
Massa(rhusetts,  New  York,  Virginia  and  other  states, 
hav^e  ])een  tested  in  our  laboratory  and  found  acid, 
and  in  view  (►f  the  actual  demonstration  of  the  value 
of  lime  in  the  culture  of  beets  in  various  parts  of 
Rhode  Island,  it  must  be  obvious  that  agricultural 
tthemists  should  give  more  attention  to  this  important 
factor  in  their  examinations  of  soils.  Most  of  the 
.soils  upon  which  lime  has  proved  so  beneficial  in  con- 
nection with  the  culture  of  beets,  and  several  where 
clover  has  likewise  been  benefited  in  a  most  wonder- 
ful manner,  belong  essentially  to  that  group  of  soils 
which  would  be  considered  as  upland  and  naturally 
well  drained,  and  would  not  be  classed,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances,   as    naturally    wet,    or    be     spoken    of    as 


Comparative    Yields   Illustrated. 


IJ25 


'swamps'  or  'morasses.'  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that  the  question  of  the  occurrence  of  acidity  in  up- 
land or  naturally  well -drained  soils,  even  though  it  is 


Jk. 


Fij;.  40.     Kxporiiiifiits  ■with  lettuce  upon  a'-id  soils. 

almost  unraentioned  by  American  aj^ric^ultural  writers 
as  a  matter  of  importance,  is  deservinfj,  in  certain 
sections  of  this  country,  of  ])crh;ii)s  even  moi-e  atten- 
tion than   it  has   received   in   Europe." 

In  order  to  still  further  emphasize  the  ini])()rtance 
of  these  experiments  in  correcting;  tlie  acidity  of  the 
soil,    four    pictures    of    comparative    \ie]d.><    are    taken 


pf*^""??**;*'*'"' 


Fig.  41.     Red  table  beets  grown   respectively  with  lime,  gypsum,  and  no  alkali. 


from  the  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Rhode  Island 
Station.  Fig.  40  shows  yields  with  lettuce.  The  two 
plants    at   the   left   are   representatives  of   plats   which 


326 


The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 


received  sodium  carbonate,  the  end  one  a  full  ration 
and  the  second  one  a  half  ration.  Plats  (repre- 
sented at   the  right)   which    had   no   sodium    carbonate 


Fiu'.  ••-.    Siigar  boets  treated  like  those  In  Fig.  41. 

produ(!ed  no  plants.  Fi<?.  41  shows  comparative 
yields  of  red  tal)k'  beets.  The  two  piles  at  the  right 
received  no  lime:  those  in  the  middle  received  land 
plaster:  and  the  two  piles  at  the  left  had  air- slaked 
lime.       Fig.  42    is    illustrative  of    tlu^   yields    of  sugar 


Fig.  4;t.     Maneolds  without  and  with  lime. 

beets,  the  treatment  l)eing  in  the  same  sequence  as  in 
Fig.  41.  Fig.  48  shows  mangolds.  The  pile  at  the 
right  was  from  a  limed  plat,  and  that  at  the  left  from 


Use   of  Gypsum   Discontinued.  327 

an  unlimed   plat.     Both  also  received   muriate  of   pot- 
ash, dissolved  bone-black  and  nitrate  of   soda. 


GYPSUM,  OR  LAND  PLASTER. 

The  practice  of  sowing  small  quantities  of  gyp- 
sum, or  sulfate  of  lime  (CaSOj)  on  clover  fields  soon 
after  the  plants  start  in  the  spring,  and  on  maize 
and  potatoes  when  a  few  inches  high,  was  common 
in  many  localities  in  the  United  States  wherever 
the  fields  were  within  easy  reach  of  the  plaster  beds, 
from  about  1835  to  1865,  since  which  time  its  use 
has  been  largely  abandoned.  In  early  days  the  ap- 
plication of  one  or  at  most  two  bushels  per  acre 
on  clover  not  infrequently  resulted  in  increasing  the 
yield  of  hay  from  20  to  50  per  cent.  As  time  passed, 
it  was  observed  that  gypsum  failed  to  produce  the 
old-time  results.  At  first  it  was  supposed  that 
the  quality  of  the  gypsum  had  deteriorated,  but  a 
few  experiments  with  that  of  known  composition 
showed  that  the  trouble  was  not  all  due  to  the 
poor  quality  of  the  material,  though  some  of  the 
gypsum  on  the  market  gave  evidence  of  not  being  up 
to  a  high  standard,  as  is  shown  by  the  following 
table  of  analyses  made  by  Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 
Cornell  University,  1879.  He  precedes  the  table  with 
the   following   explanatory   note: 

"Ordinary  plaster,  as  used  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, owes  its  value  to  the  sulfate  of  lime  that  it 
contains,  and  which,  in  the  following  table,  is  des- 
ignated   as    pure    plaster:     the   other    ingredients   are 


32ii  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

chiefly  carbonate  of  lime  and  entirely  worthless  insol- 
uble  matters," 


Ijocality. 
Nova  Scotia. 

By  whom  sampled. 
Station. 

Iiisoluble 

matter. 

.76 

Pure 

plaster. 

96.9 

ClockviUe,  N.  Y. 

Canastota  Farmers'  Club. 

8.62 

66.78 

Chittenanpo.  N.  Y. 
Cottons,  N.  Y. 

'I      :.     :: 

6.08 
13.04 

82.49 
67..') 

Warapsville.  N.  Y. 
Fayetteville,  N.  Y. 

11.1 

7.58 

77.2.-) 

Cayuga  Beds,  N.  Y. 

Undetermined. 

72.C7 

Onondago  County. 

o.fiS 

77.01 

Onondago  Co.  Mills. 

F. 

L.  Kilburn.               Undeterniiiit<l, 

.    48.. 57 

Springport  Beds. 

Di 

r.  S.  M.  Babcock. 

8.1<i 

CO.  74 

Gypsum  is  now  used  to  some  extent  on  the  Hoors 
and  roost  platforms  of  hen  houses,  and  on  tlie  floors 
of  cow  and  horse  stables,  to  fix  the  ammonia  which 
tends  to  escape,  and  to  dry  and  sweeten  the  stables. 
It  is  believed  that  this  indirect  way  of  reaching 
the  plant  is  quite  as  satisfactory  as  the  direct 
method,  and  that  the  valuable  results  reached  in  the 
barns  nowise  injures  the  effects  which  mifjht  be 
secured  from  a  direct  application.  It  requires  400 
parts  of  water  to  dissolve  one  of  gypsum;  hence, 
an  application  of  from  one  to  two  bushels  per  acre 
is  likely  to  be  as  beneficial  as  a  larger  quantity. 
Gypsum  sliouhl  not  be  api)lied  to  growing  potatoes 
or  to  land  intended  for  growing  them,  for  the  same 
reason  that  lime  is  withheld;  viz,  a  tendency  to  in- 
crease  the   disease    known    as   scab. 

Formerly  it  was  believed  that  the  marked  bene- 
ficial results  of  a  light  application  of  gypsum,  es- 
pecially  on   clover   and   maize,  were   produced   by  the 


Action  of  Gypsum.  329 

a(;tion  of  the  gypsuin  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of 
the  plants,  enabling  them  to  conserve  moisture;  that 
is,  it  prevented  rapid  transpiration  from  their  sur- 
faces, and  hence  carried  the  plants  safely  through 
periods  of  drought.  Beneficial  effects  of  gypsum 
could  not  be  due  to  the  lime  which  it  contains, 
since  the  quantity  applied  is  infinitesimal;  100 
pounds,  of  the  average  composition  of  the  ten  sam- 
ples given  in  the  preceding  tables,  would  contain 
but  26  pounds  of  lime.  It  is  now  believed  that 
gypsum  acts  upon  the  double  silicates,  and  liberates 
and  makes  available  the  potash  which,  in  the  absence 
of  the  gypsum,  would  be  unavailable.  It  may  also 
take  up  and  fix  small  quantities  of  ammonia  from 
the  air.  Biwv  soils  treated  with  gypsum  are  found 
to  contain  more  moisture  in  dry  weather  than  those 
which  ar«'  untreated.  Whether  it  produces  the  result 
l)y  conserving  moisture,  or  by  taking  it  from  the 
atmosphere,  or  acts  in  both  directions,  is  not  cer- 
tainly known.  When  arable  soils  have  l)een  depleted 
«»f  a  part  of  their  potash,  it  may  be  better  to  apply 
l)otash  than  to  set  free  the  small  amount  remain- 
ing in  the  soil  ])y  the  use  of  gypsum,  especially 
when  phosphates  are  used,  for  they  contain  a  large 
percentage  of  gypsum,  which  is  secured  by  treating 
insoluble  phosphates  with  sulfuric  acid;  the  latter 
unites  with  the  lime  and  forms  sulfate  of  lime,  or 
gypsum.  Therefore,  whenever  phosphates  are  used 
additional  gypsum  would  be  unnecessary. 

In    speaking    of     "  Western     and    Central     Prairie 
Soils,"     ill     Bulletin     30    of    the    Minnesota    Agricul- 


3.10  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

tural  Experiment  Station,  page  173,  Professor  Snyder 
says: 

"The  indirect  action  of  land  plaster  (gypsum)  on 
these  soils  in  liberating  plant -food,  particularly  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid,  is  unusually  marked.  Experi- 
ments conducted  in  the  laboratory  have  shown  that 
small  amounts  of  gypsum  are  (juite  active  in  render- 
ing potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  even  nitrogen,  solu- 
ble in  the  soil  water.  It  is  not  the  land  plaster  itself 
that  furnishes  the  food,  but  it  is  the  power  that  it 
possesses  in  making  the  mineral  matters  available  that 
are  already  in  the  soil.  Land  plaster  acts  more  as  a 
stimulant  and  not  as  a  direct  fertilizer,  and  if  not 
used  to  excess  it  will  b.>  a  profitable  fertilizer  to  use 
on  these  soils,  especially  to  bring  in  grass  and 
clover." 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  why 
gypsum  fails  to  produce  the  marked  results  it  did 
when  the  soil  contained  large  stores  of  potash 
which  only  needed  to  be  liberated  to  become  useful, 
and  that  by  the  use  of  phosphate  or  superphosphate 
a  double  benefit  may  be  secured,  as  they  nuiy  provide 
phosphoriit  acid  directly  and  potash  indirectly. —  two 
necessary  elements  of  plant  growth.  Whenever  gyp- 
sum fails  to  produce  marked  beneficial  results,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  potash  would  be  beneficial.  Not- 
withstanding what  has  been  said,  the  use  of  small 
quantities  of  gypsum  about  the  henneries,  stables  and 
manure  heaj^s  should  not  l>e  diminished,  but  rather 
increased. 

The  alkali  soil.s  so  conimoii   west  of    the   115th  me- 


Evaporation    Arrested.  331 

ridian  may  in  many  cases  be  successfully  tilled  if  an 
application  of  gypsum  is  made.  Deep  plowing  and 
frequent  surface  tillage  may  also  be  made  to  assist  in 
reclaiming  these  lands.  Professor  E.  W.  Hilgard,  of 
llie  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  University 
of  California,  in  his  report  in  1889,  on  the  treat- 
ment of  alkali  .soils  which  contain  such  large  i)or- 
centages  of  "black  alkali"  (carl)onate  of  soda,  oi- 
sal-soda),  and  also  the  less  harmful  "white  alkali,"  or 
sodium  sulfate,  says:  "The  remedies  suggested  are 
largely  based  upon  the  diminution  of  surface  evapo- 
ration, the  prevention  of  the  formation  of  surface 
crusts,  and,  in  case  of  the  presence  of  the  most  nox- 
ious ingredient,  carbonate  of  soda,  its  neutralization 
l>y  means  of  land  plaster,  which  converts  it  into  a 
harmless  neutral  salt."  "  The  analyses  having  fur- 
ther shown  the  presence  in  most  of  tlie  alkali  salts 
of  large  supplies  of  potash  salts,  soluble  phosphates, 
and  nitrates,  the  high  and  lasting  productiveness  of 
the  land  when  reclaimed  has  been  placed  l)eyond 
all  cavil,  and  has,  in  numerous  cases  of  intelligent 
treatment,  been  amply  confirmed  by  experience." 

The  al)ove  emphasizes  the  fact  tliat  soils  may 
contain  an  abundance  of  potential  fertility.  l)ut  fail 
to  respond  to  superior  tillage.  In  like  manner  many 
soils  with  no  injurious  carbonate  of  soda  do  not 
give  full  harvests,  not  for  lack  of  potential  fertility, 
but  because  some  one  or  two  factors  necessary  to 
full    production    are    not    seen,    or    are    ignored. 

The  value  of  both  salt  and  gypsum,  when  used 
on  friable   soils,  for  conserving  moisture  or  for  secur- 


332  The    Fertility   of  the    lAind. 

ing  it  from  the  air,  has  long  been  known,  but  no  ex- 
tended use  has  been  made,  at  k'ast  not  in  tliis 
country,  of  a  mixture  of  salt  and  gypsum,  to  the 
surface  soil.  Since  plants  too  frequently  suffer  for 
lack  of  moisture  during  considerable  periods  in  th«! 
summer  months,  it  might  be  wise  for  the  farmer  to 
make  applications  of  this  mixture  in  a  large  way, 
since  both  gypsum  and  salt  are  inexpensive.  The 
following  table  briefly  sets  forth  the  results  of  some 
investigations  at  Cornell:* 

Application  per  aero. 

Plat  1 300  lbs.  gypsum.  |  Excess   of    nioi.sture    in    first    8 

300    "      salt.  .  in.-hes  of  Pint  1  over  Plat  4.  12,903 

Plat  4  (adjoininp)  untreated.  '  )>ouiuls. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  select  field  plats  of 
exactly  uniform  surface  and  subsoil  texture  or  fer- 
tility, hence  there  is  need  of  verifying  ])lat  experi- 
ments in  pots  filled  with  soil  of  uniform  texture  and 
composition.  Unglazed  8 -inch  flower  pots  filled  with 
17  pounds  each  of  loamy  soil  were  placed  in  a 
greenhouse  July  1 1 .  One  pound  of  water  was  added 
to  each  pot  .Inly  20.  24  and  28,  and  2  pounds  on 
August  2,  8  and  11. —  9  pounds  in  all  to  each  pot. 
A  determination  of  moisture  on  August  16  showed 
that  the  i)ot  treated  to  half  a  pound  of  salt  and 
gypsum  contained  12.09  per  cent  moisture,  while  the 
untreated  pot  contained  6.01  per  cent,  or  less  than 
half  as  much.t 

•  Se<.:on<i  Annual  Report  (iirnell  I'niversit.v  Exp.  Station.  1892-;i. 
t  fnpnhlished  exporiment*.  Cnriifll  liiiversify  Kxp.  Station. 


Variation    in    Ashes.  333 

ASHES. 

The  value  and  composition  of  wood -ashes  vary  so 
much,  owing  to  the  kinds  of  wood  from  which  they 
are  produced,  the  intensity  of  the  fire  when  the  wixxl 
is  burned,  and  the  care  used  in  storing  them,  that 
their  agricultui*al  vahu^  can  never  be  known  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy  without  having  them  analyzed. 
Large  amounts  (such  as  car-load  lots)  are  usually 
made  up  of  manj-  small  lots  purch.ise  1  at  the  farms. 
These  vary  greatly,  and  as  the  various  i)urchases  are 
seldom  thoroughly  mixed,  it  is  difficult  to  get  a 
sample  which  fairly  represents  an  average,  and. 
therefore,  iM  all  cases,  except  where  the  ashes  are 
uniform  in  character,  they  have  to  be  purchased  with- 
out a  full  knowledge  of  their  composition. 

Nevertheless,  a  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
a  large  number  of  samples  helps  the  purchaser  to 
judge  more  correctly  as  to  the  value  of  unanalyzed 
ashes  than  he  could  without  such  knowledge,  espe- 
cially if  something  can  be  learned  as  to  where  and 
how  they  were  produced. 

The  following  tables  are  submitted,  with  the  belief 
that  they  contain  some  value  when  studied  by  the 
intelligent  reader: 

TABLE   LXXXIII. 

Canada  hard-wood  ashen. 

(Sold  as  sucli.) 

Average  of  flfteen  analyses  made  bi/  vnriou.'i  stations. 

Per  ceu'. 

Potash G.17 

Phosphoric  acid 1.88 


HM  The    Fertility    of   the    Land. 

Various  woods. 
The  following  are  the  results  of  analyses  made  at  various  stations  ; 
in  most  rases  but  one  determination  vras  made  : 

Phos.  acid,     Potaxh, 
I)*roent.       p<?rrent. 

Soft  wood,  taken  afffr  heavy  rains M  .'<.02 

'      !..-)  -2.62 

Pine '     6(i  I."):* 

Spruce,  from  boiler  furnace 1.4  4..W 

( 'edar  ashes 1.91  .'..Oy 

Spnire.  from  boiler  furnace 1 .27  1  .iCi 

1.47  :..-> 

tan  bark  1.44  2.1 

Soft  wood  1 .78  4.G.'> 

Hard    ••       .'{.  8.4K 

••       2.5«i  9. 

Birch  twigs  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter. . .  5.89  4.86 

White  ash 1.29  5.23 

Maple  and  birch 2. 4 J  7.35 

bir<-h,  beach,  ash  and  ehn \.9ii  8.41 

and  birch 2.0<)  4.87 

Mixed  stove  a.shes 1.48  7.7 

heater     "     1.28  8.69 

Maple  and  birch 2.09  6.35 

Florida  hickory 4.4  2.84 

Kentucky  hickory 1.3  1.75 

41.8  106.04 

.\verage 1.99  5.05 

Wood  ashen. 
( Origin  unknown.) 
One  hundred  and  three  analyses  by  the  Massachusetts    Experiment 

Station  give  the  following  : 

.\verage,  Ertreme  range, 

percent.  i>ercent. 

Phosphoric  acid 1.65  .5  to    3. 

Potash 5.3  2.     ••  10. 

Korty-three  analyses  made  by  the  Connecticut  Station  : 

Per  cent. 

I'hosphoric  acid 1 .42 

Potash 4.96 

Average  of  both i  ." ' 

*  15.13 


Coal    (in<(    CoHoH-sef^d    Ashis.  ^^'y 

The  avorajje  of  the  182  analyses  ^^ivcii  al)«)\«'  is 
r).26  per  cent  of  i)otash  and  1.6.")  per  eent  of  j^hos- 
phoric.  acid.  Whatever  value  may  be  /jfiven  to  the 
above,  averages,  the  fact  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  variation  in  content  and  values  in  the 
various  samples  is  great. 

In  respeet  to  coal -ashes,  it  maj'  V)c  said  that  they 
have  no  value  as  plant-food.  (See  Ap])endix.)  In 
rai-e  cases  they  seem  to  exert  some  beneficial  action 
upon  the  physical  constitution  of  the  soil,  but,  in 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  best  use  -which  can 
be  made  of  them  is  to  put  them  on  roads. 

rOTTON-SEED    HULL    ASHES. 

In  preparing  cotton -seed  for  extracting  the  oil,  the 
hulls  or  bran  of  the  seed  iwe  removed.  Some  of  them 
are  bui-ned  as  fuel  under  boilers,  and  some  are  fed  to 
♦•at tie.  The  composition  of  the  ash  of  hidls  is  no 
more  uniform  than  that  of  wood -ashes,  as  they  are 
likely  to  be  mixed  with  wood  ashes  of  inferior  qual- 
ity, and    other  substances. 

The  average  of  six  analyses  made  at  the  Connecti- 
cut Station  is  as  follows: 


Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid tt.'jS 

Potash 22.0;-) 


Value 

Extreme  rauge 

per  ton. 

per  cent. 

$13.41 

5.       to  17.72 

20.G5 

lO.-^S  ••  32.79 

$34.00 


The    average   of    ten  analyses    from    the    Massachu- 
setts, Alabama  and  Arkansas  Stations  is  as  follows  : 


336  The    Fertilitu    of  the    Land. 


Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 9.89 

PoUsh 23.36 


Value 
per  ton. 

Average  of  both. 
Per  cent. 

$13.85 

9.73 

20.12 

22.65 

$33.97 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  percentages  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  vary  as  widely  in  cotton -seed  hull 
ashes  as  in  wood  ashes.  This  is  probably  not  due  to 
adulteration,  but  to  the  kinds  of  fuel  })urned  under 
the  boilers  in  conjunction  with  the  hulls.  Frequently 
pine  wood  is  used  in  part,  and  if  reference  is  made 
to  Table  LXXXIII.  it  is  seen  that  ashe.s  from  pine 
may  contain  not  more  than  .GG  per  cent  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  1.53  per  cent  of  potash.  It  is 
evident  that  if  pine  wood  forms  any  considerable 
l)ortion  of  the  fuel  used  to  supplement  the  hulls 
the  value  of  the  resultant  ashes  will  be  materially 
reduced.  The  only  safe  way  is  to  purchase  ashes  on 
a  guaranteed  analysis,  since  it  is  seen  that  one  sup- 
ply may  be  worth  three  times  as  much  as  another. 
Ashes  of  a  good  quality  appear  to  improve  the 
physical  texture  of  the  land,  as  well  as  to  furnish 
valuable  plant -food  in  a  most  acceptable  form. 

RIVER     AND     SWAMP    MVD,    AND     PEAT. 

Six  analyses   of    river  and    swamp    mud    from    va- 
rious Stations   give  an  average  of  : 

Per  cent. 

Water   69.2 

Nitrogen 32 

Phosphoric  acid 11 

Potash 08 


Peai   as   an    Absorbent.  387 

Eight  analyses  of  poat  from  various  Stations  give 
an  average  of  .67  per  cent  nitrogen.  Three  analyses 
from  various  Stations  give  an  average  of  ,21  per 
cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  .13  per  cent  potash.  How 
much  of  the  various  substances  were  availa})le  is  not 
stated. 

If  the  above  percentages  of  valuable  constituents 
are  compared  with  those  given  in  Tallies  I.  and  II. 
(pages  12  and  14),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  swamp 
muck  and  peat  are  not  richer  than  the  good  soils, 
with  the  exception  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  peat, 
which,  without  doubt,  is  far  less  available  than  it 
is  in  good  soil.  Peat,  if  dried,  may  be  used  as  an 
absorbent  for  liquid'  manure,  not  so  much  for  its 
inherent  value  as  for  conserving  the  nitrogen  in  the 
manure,  and  for  improving  the  condition  of  the 
stables. 

MARL. 

Twenty -two  analyses  of  marl  from  Kentucky  Sta- 
tion  (character  not   specified)   gave  an  average  of  : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 047 

Potash 2.2 

Lime Lll 

Three  analyses  from  the  Connecticut  Station  give 
an  average  of : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid l.Co 

Potash 5.43 

Twenty -four  analyses  from   the    Maryland  Station  : 
W 


338  The    Fertility   of  the    Liind. 

Extreme  rangf 
Per  cent.       Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 38  1.    to  2. 

Potash 1.39  2.5   "3. 

Seven  analyses  of  fossil  marl  by  the  Kentucky 
Station  : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 23 

Potash 1.17 

Six  analyses  of  shell  marl  by  the  Kentucky  Sta- 
tion : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid '\\ 

Potash .')f» 

The  potential  plant -food  in  marls  is  not  readily 
available,  and  hence  is  of  less  value  per  unit  than 
when  contained  in  hij^h- grade  commercial  fertilizers. 
Liberal  applications  of  marl  are  usually  ])eueficial,  but 
its  value  per  ton  is  so  small  tliat  it  can  only  be  used 
near  the  beds  where  it  is  found. 


-MUCK. 

Ten  analyses  of  niu(;k  made  by  the  Connecticut 
Station  give  an  average  of  62  per  cent  wat«'r  and 
.63  per  cent  nitrogen.  Ten  analyses  of  partially  dry 
muck    from   various  stations    give  an  average  of  : 

Per  cent. 

Water 27.78 

Nitrogen 1 .02 

Phosphoric  ucid 23 

Five  analyses  from  the  Connecticut  Station  give 
an  average  of : 


Muck    is    ISloir    in    its    Art  ion.  ^'.i9 

P<>r  pent. 

Water 47.85 

Nitrogen 65 

Phosphoric  acid 1(> 

Seven  samples  from  various  Stations  give  an  ave- 
rage of  : 

Per  cent. 

Water .H.S? 

Nitrogen 1 . 

Phosplioric  acid '2."> 

Potash :i!t 

It  is  probable  that  a  large  portion  of  the  plant- 
food  in  muck  is  insoluble;  if  so,  its  value  would  be 
much  less  than  at  first  glance  might  ))e  supposed. 
However,  muck  is  often  a  very  excellent  dressing  for 
improving  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  either  to 
break  up  and  loosen  hard  clays,  or  to  increase  the 
water- holding  capacity  and  to  lessen  the  leaching  of 
light  sands. 

SALT. 

Common  salt,  or  chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl),  is 
seldom  applied  to  the  land,  although  it  has  long 
been  known  that  it  sometimes  increases  productive- 
ness, promotes  brightness  and  strength  of  straw  of 
the  cereals,  when  applied  in  moderate  quantities  on 
certain  classes  of  soils,  and  acts  in  other  ways  which 
are  not  well  understood.  Its  application  has  proved 
to  be  of  no  benefit,  or  positively  harmful,  quite  as 
often  as  it  has  been  beneficial. 

Several    species    of    herbivoi-ous    animals,  when    not 


.'J4((  Tin     Feriilitu    of  il,p    Land. 

near  tlif  s('a-<(tast,  liavc  a  fondness  for  salt,  whioli, 
if  judiciously  gratified,  is  beneficial  to  the  animals, 
especially  in  the  case  of  cows  in  milk.  It  improves 
their  appetites,  increases  their  flow  of  milk,  and  indi- 
rectly may  facilitate  the  churning  of  cream.  From 
this  it  would  be  natural  to  conclude  that  the  plants 
arc  unable  to  secure  enough  salt  to  fully  satisfy  the 
animals  which  eat  them,  and  that  in  many  cases 
light  applications  of  salt  might  be  made  to  indi- 
rectly increase  the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  there- 
fore promote  the  welfare  of  the  animal  and  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  its  products. 

Salt,  applied  at  the  rate  of  20{)  to  300  pounds 
per  acre,  may  also  assist  the  soil  in  conserving 
moisture,  and  in  securing  moisture  from  the  air. 
Certain  it  is  that  land  treated  with  salt  contains 
more  moisture  in  dry  weathei-  than  that  which  is 
untreated.  The  application  of  a  mixture  of  equal 
pai'ts  of  salt  and  gypsum  darkens  the  soil,  and  by 
its  a(!tion  tends  indirectly  to  furnish  moisture  near 
the  surface  for  the  use  of  plants. 

A  solution  of  salt  may  ])e  made  to  conserve 
fertility  in  manure  heaps,  especially  when  too  raj)id 
decomposition  is  taking  place,  as  is  likely  to  occur 
when  manures  containing  large  amounts  of  coai-se 
]>edding  and  the  voidings  of  horses  are  placed  in 
large  piles. 

The  use  of  salt  to  destroy  wire- worms  is  often 
recommended.  Extended  experiments  have  shown 
that  an  application  of  some  eight  tons  to  the  acre, 
which    would     be    necessary    to    kill     the     wire   worms, 


Oenernl    ConcJ unions.  341 

would   be    an    amount   so   great   as    to   destroy   nearly 
all  vegetation.* 

It  has  been  briefly  shown  how  salt,  lime  and 
gypsum  may,  under  certain  conditions,  be  made  to 
promote  plant  growth:  just  when  and  where  these 
conditions  may  be  present  can  l)e  determined  only 
by  careful  observation  and  experimentation.  Now 
that  all  of  these  indirect  fertilizers  and  amendments, 
conservers  of  fertility  and  moisture,  have  l)ecome 
cheap  and  abundant,  the  use  of  salt  and  lime  at 
least  should  become  more  common,  with  the  view 
of  determining  their  usefulness  in  any  given  case, 
when  used  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  other  sub- 
stances. 

*See  Bull.  3.3,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 

Note.— The  attention  of  the  reader  is  .Tgain  palled  to  the  term  "  value 
per  ton,''  which  term  has  been  used  here  and  in  jireeeding  chapters.  When 
unmodified,  the  term  is  misleading,  yet  it  appears  to  be  the  best  that 
can  be  used.  The  plant-food  in  crude  and  unconcentrated  fertilizing  ma- 
terials is  likely  to  be  less  av.ailable  than  in  high-grade  fertilizers.  From 
80  to  90  per  cent  of  the  valuable  constituents  of  the  latter,  and  only  from 
•1  to  10  per  cent,  and  even  less,  of  the  former,  may  be  readily  avail- 
able. The  determinations  from  which  the  above  tables  of  muck  and  marl 
are  made  seldom  give  the  condition  or  availability  of  their  plant-food,  and, 
therefore,  their  true  value  is  not  known.  Reliable  conclusions  can  only 
be  reached  by  carefully  noting  the  cost  of  transportation  and  application,  and 
the  effect  on  the  soil  and  crop. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

GREEN  MANURES    AND    FALLOWS. 

Having  done  what  he  can  to  improve  the  pro- 
ductive power  of  his  farm  by  means  of  superior  till- 
age, barn  manures,  fertilizers,  and  various  amend- 
ments, the  farmer  will  now  iniiuire  about  the  use 
of  clover  and  the  merits  of  fallowing.  The  subject 
of  green  manures  is  itself  of  suflficient  importance 
for  an  entire  volume.  Therefore  only  the  most 
cursory  attention  can  be  given  here,  and  it  is  treated 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer  rather  than  from 
that  of  the  chemist. 

CLOVERS. 

In  many  sections  of  the  United  States  the  clovers 
may  be  made  to  add  materially  to  the  productive 
power  of  the  soil.  Their  numerous  broad  leaves 
form  a  shade  w'hich  prevents  useless  evaporation  from 
the  land.  Most  of  them  are  superior  digesters  of 
tough  plant -food;  that  is,  they  have  the  power  of 
securing  food  where  many  other  plants  would  lan- 
guish for  lack  of  nourishment  and  moisture.  They 
break  down  readily,  and  quickly  give  to  succeeding 
crops,  and  in  an  acceptable  form,  the  materials  of 
which  they  are  composed. 

(342) 


Clay    Penetrated   by    Clover. 


343 


Some  of  th(i  clovers  are  able 
to  secure  much  of  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  subsoil,  altliough 
the  total  weight  of  roots  found 
in  the  lower  strata  of  soil  is  small 
compared  with  the  amount  found 
in  the  upper  strata,  as  the  nour- 
ishment secured  from  the  subsoil 
goes  largely  to  increase  the  size  of 
the  roots  near  the  surface,  and  not 
to  enlarging  the  deep -feeding  roots. 
Fig.  45  is  a  drawing,  from  a 
photograph,  of  the  root  of  a  clover 
plant  fifteen  months  old  from  the 
seed  and  22  inches  long.  This 
plant  grew  in  the  heavy  clay  soil 
of  a  clover  field  with  others  of 
similar  size  and  character.  The 
side  roots  could  not  be  preserved, 
as  the  plant  had  to  be  dug  out 
with  a  pick,  and  the  tap-root  could 
not  be  preserved  in  its  entirety 
because  of  the  hardness  of  the  clay 
and  the  smallness  of  the  root. 
The  common  clovers  get  the  greater 
part  of  their  food  within  two  feet 
of  the  surface,  though  they  may 
feed  at  the  depth  of  five  oi-  six 
feet  in  rare  cases. 

All  the  clovers  tend  to  improve 
the  physical  conditions  of   the  soil, 


^  \ 


^ 


"ig.  45. 
a   clovi 


n   of 


344  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

Those  which  have  tap-roots  also  indirectly  aerate 
the  soil  and  improve  draina^'e.  They  bring  stores 
of  potential  nitrogen  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
layers  of  the  land,  and  also  make  positive  additions 
of  it  to  the  soil.  But  if  the  resultant  manure  from 
feeding  the  hay  secured  from  clover  fields  is  not 
returned  to  the  land,  and  no  means  are  taken  to 
supply  mineral  matter,  the  fertility,  or  productive 
capacity  of  the  soil,  will,  in  time,  be  greatly  re- 
duced. For  illustration,  consider  a  crop  of  2.6  tons 
of  red  clover  hay  per  acre,  raised  by  the  author  on  a 
fourteen -acre  field  last  year.  Assiuning  the  average 
composition,  the  hay  contained,  in  round  numbers. 
293  pounds  of  mineral  matter,  of  which  101  pounds 
was  potash,  30  pounds  phosphoric  acid,  and  100 
pounds  lime.  The  hay  also  contained  from  112  to 
120  pounds  of  potential  nitrogen.  It  will  readily 
be  seen  that  it  would  not  take  many  crops  of 
clover  to  so  deplete  the  available  mineral  nuitter 
in  the  soil  as  to  seriously  reduce  production,  unless 
some  were  added.  Superior  tillage  could  prolong 
the  period  of  full  crops,  but  sooner  or  later  min- 
eral matter  must  be  added,  or  loss  would  result. 
The  wanton  waste  of  manures  has  to  a  large  extent 
counterbalanced  the  full  benefits  which  should  have 
been  derived  from  the  cultivation  of  clovers  in  many 
wheat  districts.  Additions  of  mineral  matter  to  the 
land  and  increased  clover  culture  are  competent  to 
speedily  insure  full  crops  and  cure  many  ills  which 
the  land  is  heir  to. 

The  following  table   gives   in    brief   the    results   of 


Young   vs.    Old    Clover.  345 

some    investigations  made   by   A,  M,  Bread,*   at   Cor- 
nell : 

TABLE    LXXXIV. 

Composition  of  xecond-groicth  red  rlovrr  rut  in  October,  two  years  from 
seeding,  slightly  mijrvd  irith  timothy. 

lA>s.  per  aore. 

Air-dried  tops r),417. 

Nitrogen 91.5 

Phosphoric  acid 40.35 

Potash  78. 

.\ir-dried  roots  from  8  inches  surf;ice  soil 2, .'568. 

Nitrogen 47. .'{(i 

Phosphoric  acid 27. 

Potash :!1 .90 

Total  of  tops  and  roots 7,785. 

Nitrogen l.'{8.8r. 

Phosphoric  acid   67.:!5 

Potash 109.96 

Investigations  made  ■svith  clover  one  year  from 
seeding,  showed  larger  quantities  of  the  three  ele- 
ments in  roots  and  tops  than  two-year  old  clover 
did. 

It  is  established  beyond  doubt  that  the  clovers, 
especially  the  annuals  and  the  biennials,  are  able  to 
take  large  amounts  of  mineral  matter  from  the  soil, 
find  they  receive  from  the  soil  and  air  large  amounts 
of  nitrogen,  which  they  store  iip  in  roots  and  tops. 
The  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  varies  widely.  The 
medium  red  clover,  one  year  from  seeding,  gives  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  than  clover 
two  years  from  seeding.  Red  clover  which  produces 
two    tons    per   acre    may    be    expected    to    furnish    p<j- 


•  T 


Thetis  for  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Scieuce  in  Aericulture,  1883. 


346  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

tentially  to  the  soil,  after  the  first  cutting,  in  roots 
and  stubble,  40  to  60  pounds  of  nitrogen,  20  to  25 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  30  to  50  pounds  of 
potash.  Thirty  bushels  of  wheat,  or  1,800  pounds, 
and  2,700  pounds  of  straw,  would  remove  approxi- 
mately 46  pounds  of  nitrogen,  20  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  26  pounds  of  potash.  The  chances 
are,  then,  that  a  clover  stubble,  if  plowed  early, 
might  furnish  of  available  plant -food  two -thirds  of 
the  nitrogen,  one -half  of  the  phosphoric  acid  and  two- 
thirds  of  the  potash  needed  for  a  crop  of  30  bush- 
els of  wheat  per  acre  and  the  accompanying  straw, 
if  soil,  climate  and  moisture  performed  their  legiti- 
mate work.  Although  clover,  both  roots  and  tops, 
breaks  down  and  decomposes  rapidly,  it  could  hardly 
be  expected  that  all  of  the  fertilizing  constituents 
it  contains  would  become  available  and  be  used  by 
the   wheat,  or   even   by   succeeding   crops. 

The  amounts  of  plant -food  which  wheat,  under 
present  systems  of  tillage,  secures  from  clover  roots 
and  stubble  left  in  the  soil  have  usually  been  ex- 
aggerated. The  beneficial  effects  of  clovers  are  due 
quite  as  much  to  their  action  on  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil  as  to  the  amount  of  available 
plant -food  which  they  bring  to  the  land.  The 
species  of  clover  which  may  give  best  results  in 
any  locality  can  be  determined  only  by  experimen- 
tation. In  a  warm  climate  the  crimson  clover  does 
especially  well;  in  the  north  the  perennial  species — 
medium,  large  red  and  alsike — are  to  be  preferred, 
though    in    some    localities    crimson    clover   does    well. 


Cover    Crops.  347 

Recent  results  show  that  the  hirge  and  medium  red 
clovers,  as  orchard  or  stubble  cover  crops,  are  to  be 
preferred  to  the  crimson  all  along  the  debatable  line 
where  the  latter  does  well  only  under  favorable 
conditions.  To  receive  the  greatest  good  from  clovers 
when  used  as  cover  crops,  they  should  be  sown 
early.  Alfalfa  may  be  made  to  produce  much  more 
forage  than  the  clovers,  but  it  is  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  get  the  plant  well  started,  and  it  is  not  at 
its  best  until  it  is  from  two  to  three  years  old, 
and  when  once  well  established,  it  is  left  undis- 
turbed for  several  years.  Hence,  it  tends  to  rob 
the  land  of  its  mineral  elements,  and  does  not 
l)ring  to  the  land  as  much  potential  nitrogen  as 
the  clovers  do,  since  the  roots  and  stubble  are 
utilized  for  their  nitrogenous  compounds  only  at  long 
intervals.  In  a  warm  climate  the  cow  pea  and  the 
crimson  clover,  if  supplemented  with  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid,  may  be  used  not  only  to  main- 
tain the  productivity  of  the  land,  but  even  to  in- 
crease it,  while  diminishing  the  cost  of  tillage  and 
improving  the  texture  of  the  soil,  thereby  increas- 
ing   its    capacity'   for    holding    moisture. 

Some  garden  plats,  and  even  whole  fields,  are  left 
to  grow  weeds  in  late  summer  and  fall.  These 
places  would  be  better  seeded  to  clover,  peas  or 
some  other  leguminous  plants,  since  even  a  growth 
of  two  or  three  months  serves  to  add  humus  and 
nitrogen  to  the  soil.  The  following  table  sets  forth 
the  results  of  some  experiments  conducted  in  1898 
at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station.     Clover  seeds  were 


348  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

sown  Augfiist  1.  and  tlie  plants  were  dug  Novem- 
ber 4,  1896,  three  months  and  four  days  after  the 
seeds  were  sown: 

TABLE    LXXXV. 

Nitrogen  in  an  acre  of  clovers. 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs., 

in  top.  in  roots.  tot&l. 

Crimson  clover 125.28  30.66  155.94 

Mammoth     "     67.57  78.39  145.96 

Medium  red  clover 63.11  40.25  103.36 

The  nitrogen  in  the  clover  may  not  be  as  quickly 
available  as  it  is  in  cotton -seed  meal;  but,  if  so, 
it  would  usually  be  considered  of  less  value  per 
unit  than  that  in  the  meal,  the  trade  value  of 
which  is  placed  at  12  cents  per  pound.  AMiat  part 
of  the  nitrogen  of  these  clovers  was  secured  from 
the  air  and  what  part  from  the  soil  is  not  known, 
but  enough  is  revealed  to  indicate  that  leguminous 
cover  and  catch  crops  may  be  made  to  materially 
assist   productivity. 

A  sample  of  the  nodules  from  the  roots  of  the 
above  crimson  clover  was  taken  November  14,  1896. 
An  analysis  showed  the  following  percentages  of 
moisture  and  nitrogen: 

Percent. 

Moisture 79.37 

Nitrogen 1.1 

Not  only  leguminous  plants,  but  others,  as  rye, 
wheat  and  oats,  may  be  used  to  great  advantage  as 
cover  crops,  and  all  do  well  if  sowed  or  drilled  on 
iinplowed    land    after    inter-tilled    crops.        The    hmI 


Glover   <is    u    Host -plant .  340 

flovers  may  be  introduced  into  the  pastures  and 
mowed  lands  by  sowing  their  seeds  in  earh'  spring, 
after  which  the  land  should  be  harrowed  and  rolled. 
The  harrowing  and  rolling  will  improve  the  grasses  ; 
and  the  clovers  in  time  when  their  roots  have  de- 
cayed, will  tend  to  aerate  and  drain  the  soil  while 
furnishing  acceptable  nitrogen  for  the  grasses.  Since 
the  clovers  always  benefit  the  pasture  and  hay 
grasses  when  associated  with  them,  some  care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  at  least  a  few  such  host  plants 
in  the  grass  fields  at  all  times. 

FALLOWS. 

The  practice  of  leaving  the  land  fallow  or  un- 
cropped  for  one  or  more  seasons  was  common  in 
ancient  times.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  if  the 
laud  was  cultivated  for  all  or  part  of  the  period  of  rest 
it  was  more  fruitful  than  if  left  to  be  occupied  by 
weeds  and  volunteer  grasses.  The  first  implements  for 
tilling  the  land  were  so  imperfect  that  the  demands  of 
the  crops  soon  outran  the  available  plant -food,  and 
there  were  no  better  methods  known  for  bringing  the 
supply  up  to  the  demand  than  by  weathering  and  by 
the  growth  and  decay  of  vegetable  matter.  The  French 
early  discovered  that  "manoeuvering"  the  land,  that  is, 
making  the  particles  of  eartli  change  place  by  tillage, 
made  it  more  productive.  Fallowing  at  first  was  per- 
formed largely  by  spade  and  hoe  on  small  areas:  as 
civilization  advanced  and  population  increased,  a  larger, 
better  and   constant   supply  of    food  was   needed,  and, 


850  The    Fertmiy    of  tht^    Umd. 

as  little  manuring  was  practiced,  summer- fallowing 
became  common  in  all  civilized  countries.  The  effects 
of  fallowing  were  easily  seen  and  well  understood,  but 
the  causes  which  produced  the  effects  were  often  a 
mystery.  It  was  noted  that  some  crops  were  more 
benefited  by  fallowing  than  others.  In  England  the 
tallow  preceded  the  exacting  wheat  crop.  In  Italy, 
France  and  Germany,  continuous  tillage  in  the  vine- 
yards was  found  to  be  beneficial  and  took,  in  part,  the 
place  of  the  fallow.  The  practice  of  continuous  tillage 
each  season  has  become  common  in  American  vine- 
yards and  in  Californian  orchards,  and  might  be  more 
generally  practiced  with  good  results  in  the  orchards 
of  the  east.  Observing  the  wonderful  results  of  clean 
and  continuous  tillage  in  orchards  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  it  is  inexplical»le  that  the  practice  has  not 
become  universal,  for  it  not  only  sets  free  plant-food 
and  conserves  moistiire,  but  adds  to  the  fruitfulness 
of  the  trees. 

About  the  ])eginniug  of  the  second  half  of  the 
l)resent  century,  great  improvements  were  made  in  the 
l)low  and  other  farm  inii)lements,  which  enabled  the 
farmer  to  till  the  land  so  much  better  than  formerly 
that  the  practice  of  bare  summer- fallowing  has  been 
largely  abandoned.  The  result  is  that  weeds,  espe- 
cially Canada  thistles,  are  on  the  increase  except 
where  the  most  thorough  intensified  tillage  has  been 
practiced. 

Tlie  benefits  of  summer- fallowing  are  so  many  that 
the  practice  should  again  come  into  vogue  in  many 
cases.     The   first    plowing    may   be   performed   the   last 


Fallotvs,   How    Conducted.  351 

of  May  (it  should  be  deep  and  thorough),  and  imme- 
diately afterwards  the  surface  should  be  put  in  fine 
tilth.  This  will  induce  most  of  the  seeds  in  the  soil 
to  germinate  at  once,  and  then  the  young  plants  may 
be  easily  killed.  As  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  fallow- 
ing is  to  clean  the  land,  this  opportunity  should  not 
he  allowed  to  pass  without  accomplishing  the  object 
sought.  The  character  of  the  plowing,  the  weeds 
present,  the  sod  turned  under,  and  the  soil,  will  de- 
termine whether  it  will  be  best  to  replow  two  oi-  three 
times  or  to  give  deep  surface  tillage  ;  the  former  is 
usually  the  safest  and  best  when  practicable.  The 
last  deep  plowing  should  not  be  done  later  than  the 
middle  of  August,  if  the  land  is  to  be  planted  to 
wheat  or  rye,  that  the  soil  may  have  time  to  solidif\\ 
the  seed-bed,  meantime,  being  kept  mellow  by  shallow 
surface  tillage.  One  deep  plowing  and  a  surface  tillage 
may  be  made  to  accomplish  all  the  desired  objects  in 
some  cases.  Bare  summer -fallowing  should  clear  the 
land  of  both  perennial  and  annual  weeds,  change  for 
the  better  the  physical  condition  of  the  land,  break  up 
the  hard-pan,  facilitate  the  movement  of  moisture 
between  the  particles  of  earth,  give  time  and  oppor- 
tunity to  remove  any  obstructions  to  plow  or  harvester, 
and  above  all  it  should  set  free  fertility,  especially 
nitrogen.  When  any  considerable  amount  of  draining 
is  to  be  done  at  one  time,  the  opportunity'  to  conduct 
a  summer -fallow  should  be  taken,  as  the  injurious 
effects  of  tramping  in  early  spring,  the  time  when  the 
draining  would  best  be  done,  will  be  overcome  by 
subsequent  tillage. 


;152  Th>     Fertility  of  the    Land. 

Green  su miner  fallows  are  those  upon  which  plants 
are  growing  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time  while 
the  land  is  under  treatment.  They  are  frecjuently  re- 
sorted to  when  the  soil  is  light  and  poor,  while  bare 
fallowing  is  usually  practiced  when  the  soil  contains  a 
fair  amount  of  plant -food,  is  weedy  and  of  a  clayey 
or  tenacious  nature.  By  plowing  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember (in  some  localities  even  later),  rye,  crim.son 
clover  or  other  seeds  may  be  sown  and  the  plants 
plowed  under  when  coming  into  head  the  following 
spring.  Buckwheat,  or  better,  peas  in  the  north  and 
cow  peas  in  the  south,  may  be  sown  on  the  fresh- 
turned  earth  early  in  the  season.  Tlie  cost  of  the 
seed,  the  climate,  the  land,  and  especially  the  resultant 
fertility,  sliould  all  l)e  considered  in  selecting  a  green 
manui-e  crop  to  be  grown  preceding  the  fallow.  Buck- 
wheat furnishes  a  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter 
to  i)low  under,  grows  readily  on  jjoor  land,  responds  t(> 
even  a  light  dressing  of  commercial  fertilizer,  leaves 
the  land  loose,  and  changes  dormant  into  active  plant- 
food,  but  is  not  a  nitrogen  gathei-er.  While  peas  and 
clover  are  quite  as  active  in  liberating  food,  they  in- 
directly produce  liberal  quantities  of  fertility  in  the 
form  of  potential  nitrogen.  Wherever  clover  will 
succeed,  it  is  by  far  the  best  green  fallow  plant,  for  a 
crop  of  hay  may  be  taken  off  and  yet  leave  the  land 
more  fertile  than  at  first,  for  the  stubble  and  roots  con- 
tain a  large  amount  of  nitrogen,  and  some  mineral 
matter  is  brought  by  the  roots  from  the  subsoil  to  the 
surface,  as  already  explained.  While  a  green  fallow 
does   not   give   so   good  an  opportunity   as   a   ban-   one 


8hort   Fallows.  353 

for  setting  free  plant -food  by  tillage,  or  for  destroy- 
ing weeds,  yet  in  one  respect  it  is  superior,  for  it 
actually  adds  vegetable  mold  and  fertility  to  the  land 
while  setting  free  some  of  its  dormant  energies. 

When  neither  of  the  above  fallows  is  desirable, 
much  may  be  done  by  a  short  fallow.  If  the  land 
which  has  produced  barley,  oats  or  clover,  be  plowed 
inmiediately  after  the  crop  has  been  removed,  some 
six  or  eight  weeks  intervene  before  seeding  with  fall 
grain  or  grass.  This  gives  time  for  thorough  sur- 
face tillage,  and  if  the  land  is  harrowed  or  culti- 
vated every  two  weeks  or  oftener  the  results  will  be 
beneficial  in  many  ways.  This  is  the  time  of  the 
year  when  nitrification  goes  on  rapidly  if  the  requi- 
site moisture  is  present;  and  thorough  tillage  usually 
brings  moisture  to  the  surface  by  capillarity.  Oats 
are  not  so  good  to  precede  wheat  as  barley  is,  as 
they  ripen  later,  thereby  shortening  the  period  in 
which  fertility  may  be  set  free  by  tillage  and  weath- 
ering. But  this  and  other  like  crops  may  be 
shocked  in  rows,  leaving  wide  intervals,  which  may 
be  plowed  and  fitted  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  cut. 
The  time  that  elapses  between  the  removal  of  one 
crop  and  the  planting  of  another  gives  opportunity 
for  liberating  fertility  by  tillage  and  weathering,  and, 
as  little  rain  falls  during  this  period,  no  loss  of 
nitrogen  by  leaching  will  likely  occur.  Clover  stub- 
bles are  sometimes  left  without  plowing  for  two  or 
three  weeks  after  the  hay  has  been  removed,  or 
until  the  new  growth  is  several  inches  high.  This 
is  not  always  desirable,  because  dry  weather   later  in 


354  The    Fertilitij    <>/   tin-    iMtui. 

the  season  is  likely  to  make  the  plowing  more  ditli- 
cult,  and  less  time  is  given  for  weathei-ing,  tillinji 
and  compacting  the  soil.  Since  the  roots  and  stubble 
of  the  clover  contain  much  potential  nitrogen,  fre- 
quently more  than  a  crop  of  twenty -five  bushels  of 
wheat  to  the  acre  contains,  it  is  best  to  plow  early, 
or  before  the  clover  has  made  much  growth. 

The  many  opportunities  which  are  present  to  most 
farmers  for  changing  potential  plant -food  into  that 
which  is  available,  and  for  adding  humus  and 
nitrogenous  compounds  to  the  soil,  air  not  fully 
utilized.  Few  persons  fully  realize  what  great  bene- 
fits can  be  secured  by  a  short  fallow,  oi-  by  plow- 
ing immediately  after  a  crop  has  been  removed,  and 
starting  another  one,  which  may  be  plowed  under  oi- 
used  as  a  forage  crop  later  in  the  season.  If  na- 
ture's modes  of  action  arc  observed  closely,  it  will 
be  seen  that  she  attempts  in  every  possible  way,  by 
means  of  hardy  plants,  and  those  which  are  able  to 
maintain  themselves  on  semi -sterile  soils,  to  clothe 
the  land  with  vegetation.  Should  we  not  learn  a 
lesson  from  these  natural  soil -builders  ?  Each  plant 
and  weed  seems  to  find  its  appropriate  .soil  ami 
conditions,  and  crowds  out  those  which  arc  least 
adapted  to  accomplish  the  purposes  desired.  Man\ 
of  these  are  simply  digesters  of  tough  plant -food  in 
the  surface  soil  or  the  subsoil;  some  of  them,  in 
addition,  add  greater  or  less  stores  of  potential  nitro- 
gen to  the  surface  soil. 

He  is  a  wise  farmer  who  sees  and  u[)preciates 
that    the    silent    forces,  bv  timelv  direction    and    eon- 


Intelligence,    Couragf    and    Doni'ni'wn.  055 

trol,  may  be  made  to  minister  to  his  wants,  and  to 
change  toil  to  healthful,  inspiring,  intelligent  work. 
He  is  wiser  who  sees  that  the  Great  Designer  in- 
tended man  to  have  dominion  over  all  things,  and 
does  not  complain  when  he  meets  with  partial  fail- 
ure, but  sets  himself  at  work  to  learn  how  he  may 
command  intelligently,  that  prompt  and  certain  obedi- 
ence may  be  secured. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

KOTATIOXS. 

Since  plants  feed  under  ground,  and,  hence,  out 
of  sight,  and  since  their  food  is  largely  invisible  to 
the  unaided  eye,  their  likes  and  dislikes  are  not 
easily  observed.  An  understanding  of  what  kinds  of 
food,  and  what  proportion  of  them,  plants  thrive 
upon,  is  best  secured,  not  by  direct  inspection,  but 
by  observing  the  effect  of  certain  elements  on  growth, 
the  proportion  of  one  element  to  the  other,  their 
availability,  and  the  quantity  present  in  the  soil. 
Other  factors  are  always  present  demanding  careful 
(consideration, — the  power  of  the  plant  to  reach  its 
food,  the  power  of  setting  it  free  when  it  is  rea<rhed, 
and  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  suitable  supply  of 
moisture.  Many  and  varied  forces  are  always  present, 
most  of  them  acting  silently  and  secretly.  These 
forces  and  their  action  may  be  discovered  by  inter- 
rogating the  plants,  and  by  scientific  experimenta- 
tion. A  knowledge  of  the  wants  of  plants  and  of 
the  causes  that  have  produced  the  visible  outward 
results  is  necessary  to  a  good  understanding  of  the 
laws  which  govern  their  growth. 

Forty  bushels  of  oats  may  be  grown  on  land 
that    will     not     produce     fifteen     bushels    of     wheat, 

(356) 


Power   of   Plan f ft    in    Serurp    Food.  357 

although  the  amount  of  plant -food  ivquired  for 
the  oats  is  greater  than  that  required  for  the 
wheat;  and  this,  too,  where  the  soil  and  climate  are 
adapted  to  grow  both  grains  equally  well.  This 
happens,  too,  even  if  winter  wheat  has  nearly  twice 
as  long  a  time  as  the  oats  has  in  which  to  secure 
its  food.  The  proof  is  conclusive  that,  in  this  case, 
the  oat  plant  has  greater  power  than  the  wheat 
plant,  either  to  reach  its  proper  food  or  to  set  it 
free,  or   both. 

Some  plants  require  extra  care  when  young,  and 
do  best  when  there  is  an  abundance  of  food  immedi- 
ately at  hand  in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth, — 
as  broom -corn,  sorghum,  and  other  slow -starting 
plants.  Once  well  established,  tliey  are  able  to  with- 
stand hardships,  such  as  drought  and  scarcity  of 
food,  much  better  than  maize,  which  may  begin  it.s 
growth  successfully  under  somewhat  adverse  condi- 
tions. Again,  there  are  other  plants  which  not  only 
have  the  power  to  set  free  the  mineral  constituents  of 
the  soil  in  a  marked  degree,  but  they  can  also  pene- 
trate the  subsoil  for  it,  and  can,  moreover,  through 
organisms  attached  to  their  roots,  utilize  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  air.  Among  these  are  the  clovers  and 
other  kinds  of  plants  belonging  to  the  leguminosas  or 
pulse  family.  A  notable  instance  of  this  may  be 
seen  on  the  dry,  sandy  plains  of  California,  where 
the  tree -lupine  grows  four  or  five  feet  in  height  in 
a  most  luxuriant  way,  while  other  plants  utterly 
fail  to  maintain  themselves.  With  its  long  tnp- 
root,  extending   eight  or   ten    feet   below  the   surface, 


358  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

reaching  moisture  and  mineral  food,  and  its  inde- 
pendence of  the  soil  for  its  supply  of  nitrogen,  it 
can  flourish  where  non- nitrogen  gatherers  cannot 
live.  This  plant  should  be  named  the  "pioneer." 
for  though  not  lovely  or  great  in  itself,  it  prepares 
the  way  for  a  variety  of  more  useful  vegetation. 
Plants  vary  as  to  the  amount  of  food  they  require. 
The  cacti  of  the  desert  and  the  pines  of  the  aban- 
doned fields  of  the  south  grow  and  flourish  where 
better  plants  grow  feebly  or  not  at  all. 

The  following  figures  give  the  amount  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  in  a  ton,  air-dried,  of  a  few 
common    woods : 

Phos.  acid.  Potash, 

U.S.  lbs. 

(Jld  tit-ltl  pirn- 14  .16 

Ash  wood LM  2.98 

\Vhil«  oak .')0  2.12 

Hickory l.ir,  2.76 

Some  plants  get  a  large  portion  of  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  atmosphere.  These  being  highly  car- 
boiKK^eous  in  their  composition,  require  relatively  little 
nourishment  from  the  soil.  Plants  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes:  those,  as  garden  vegetables,  which 
require  the  little  earthy  food  they  need  easily  avail- 
able in  the  earlier  stages  of  their  growth,  and  those, 
as  cereals,  which  fruit  best  if  much  of  their  earthy 
food  is  a<'ce.ssible  just  before  or  at  blooming  and 
seeding   time. 

Some  plants  start  out  in  life  with  a  greater 
reserve  of  nourishment  to  drnw  upon  than  others, 
and   hence   do   not    have  to   di'iifiid  upon  the  soil  until 


Feeding    Plants   and   Animals.  359 

they  are  well  started  in  life.  Cabbages,  onions,  and 
most  grasses  having  small  seeds  begin  their  lives  with 
a  meager  supply,  and  therefore  an  ample  amount  of 
available  food  near  the  seeds  should  be  present 
when  they  germinate.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
tuberous  plants,  as  the  potato,  are  able  to  grow 
for  a  considerable  time  and  even  fruit  without 
anj'  earthy  nourishment  except  that  contained  within 
themselves. 

Plants,  like  animals,  vary  greatly  as  to  their 
ability  to  digest  and  assimilate  the  nourishment  pre- 
sented. Some,  as  buckwheat,  rye,  mullein,  and  even 
(plover,  and  the  old -field  pine  of  the  south,  are  able 
not  merely  to  subsist,  but  to  flourish,  on  soils  in 
which  the  nitrogen  and  mineral  matter  are  "tough," 
or  not  readily  available.  Among  this  class  of  plants 
are  many  of  the  weeds.  Some  are  invigorated  by 
a  goodly  supply  of  tender  food,  others,  as  the  ox- 
eye  daisy,  are  injured  by  it ;  and  in  fact  there  are 
several  troublesome  plants  which  succumb  to  liberal 
and  persistent  manuring. 

With  the  feeding  of  animals  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  adjust  the  food  to  their  respective  wants, 
the  milch  cow  thriving  on  soft,  succulent  foods, 
while  horses  kept  for  speed  do  best  on  hard,  dry 
ones.  Yet  even  in  the  feeding  of  animals,  the 
equivalent  of  rotation  is  secured  by  making  one 
animal  subsist  on  what  is  refused  by  another.  The 
colts  relish  the  coarse  stalks  of  clover  hay  which  are 
rejected  by  the  sheep,  and  swine  grow  on  what  is  not 
digested    by    the    fattening   steers.      The    large    mutton 


360  The   Fertility   of  the    Ixind. 

breeds  of  sheep  graze  on  the  lowlands  where  the  for- 
age is  coarse  and  succulent,  and  will  lose  flesh  rapidly 
if  forced  to  subsist  on  the  short,  dry  grasses  of  the 
steep  hillsides,  while  tlie  merinos  avoid  the  lowlands, 
prefering  the  arid,  sparsely  covered  slopes.  Similarly, 
a  good  bean  crop  can  be  raised  on  wheat  stu>)ble, 
though  the  land  would  fail  to  produce  a  sectond  pay- 
ing crop  of  wheat  until  it  had  been  fertilized.  While 
it  is  true  that  wheat  may  be  and  has  been  made  to 
follow  wheat,  and  maize  to  follow  maize,  for  many 
years  in  succession  with  profit,  yet  in  both  cases, 
especially  the  former,  unusually  good  preparation  of 
the  soil  must  be  secured,  or  a  very  large  amount  of 
available  plant -food,  or  that  which  can  be  made 
quickly  available,  must  be  carried  by  the  soil,  or  a 
liberal  amount  of  nourishment  must  ))e  added  each 
year.  Either  practice  may  be  unnecessarily  expensive 
and  wasteful  if  climatic  and  other  conditions  will 
allow  rotation  to  be  practiced. 

This  short  discnission,  and  the  few  illustrations  of 
the  habits,  likings  and  i)ow('rs  of  plants,  are  given 
in  order  to  emphasize  the  need  of  noting  most  care- 
fully the  law  or  laws  which  govern  the  growth  and 
fruiting  of  each  species  and  variety  of  plants  raised, 
that  the  highest  su<*cess  may  be  se<'ured.  While 
the  wants  of  all  plants  are  similar,  yet  no  tw(» 
species  or  even  vai'ieties  have  identically  the  same 
wants,  or  possess  the  same  jjowers  of  supplying  them 
from  the  soil.  Hence,  the  exacting  crops  should  br 
grown  when  the  land  is  most  fertile,  and  the  least 
exacting   <'rops  when    the    land    is    least    fertile. 


Economy  of  Rotation.  361 

SPECIFIC     DIRECTIONS     UPON     ROTATIONS. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  but  little  attention  has 
been  given  in  America  to  the  subject  of  rotation  and 
to  the  economizing  of  fertility,  because  tlie  virgin  soil 
usually  contains  a  wealth  of  fertility,  and  the  husband- 
man is  free  to  raise  what  finds  the  most  ready  sale 
or  is  the  most  easily  transportable,  or  those  species  of 
plants  whose  needs  and  habits  he  knows  best.  This 
has  frequently  resulted  in  allowing  many  noxious 
weeds  to  get  a  firm  foothold,  in  depleting  the  soil  of 
certain  elements  while  leaving  a  superabundance  of 
others,  in  robbing  the  surface  soil  of  the  requisite 
amount  of  vegetable  mold,  in  compacting  the  land  to 
an  undue  extent,  and  in  leaving  the  subsoil  largely 
unused.  In  exceptional  cases,  as  in  tlie  northwest, 
and  in  a  few  valleys,  and  on  land  frequently  fertilized 
by  overflow,  it  may  not  be  merely  expedient  but  even 
wise  to  ignore  the  laws  of  rotation  for  a  time,  and 
practice  continuous  cropping  with  one  variety  of 
plants,  but  sooner  or  later  rotation  must  be  resorted 
to  if  production  is  to  continue  to  be  profitable,  un- 
less the    land  is  kept  liberally  fertilized. 

Intelligent  rotation  can  be  made  to  accomplish 
many  things  that  are  not  secured  l)y  the  haphazard 
methods  now  almost  universally  employed  in  this 
country.  If  systematicallj"  carried  on,  it  can  be 
made  to  destroy  a  large  numl^er  of  troublesome 
plants,  or  to  so  reduce  their  vitality  as  to  make 
them  harmless.  Consider,  for  instance,  land  infested 
with    plantain    or    wild    carrot,      These    plants    fruit 


362  The    Fertility    of   the    Land. 

after  the  medium  variety  of  red  clover  is  cut  for 
hay.  If  land  upon  which  winter  wheat  or  rye  is 
growing  be  seeded  to  clover  with  or  without  timothy, 
these  weeds  will  not  damage  the  grain  crop  nor  seri- 
ously interfere  with  the  early  growth  of  the  clover 
the  following  year,  because  they  do  not  seed  until 
midsummer.  As  soon  as  the  clover  is  cut  and  re- 
moved they  quickly  throw  up  their  seed-stalks,  blos- 
som and  fruit,  if  not  destroyed.  True,  a  few  weeks 
after  haying  the  field  may  be  mowed  a  second  time 
to  prevent  the  weeds  from  seeding,  but  enough  always 
escape  to  reseed  the  land,  and  no  i)ermanent,  bene- 
ficial results  are  secured.  If,  however,  the  (!lover 
stubble  be  thoroughly  plowed  immediately  after  the 
first  cutting,  the  reseeding  to  weeds  will  be  prevented. 
Then,  too,  this  is  the  most  suitable  time  for  plowing 
the  ground  preparatory  to  sowing  wheat  or  rye. 

If  a  short,  two-year  rotation  of  wheat  or  rye 
and  clover  be  pursued  for  a  few  years,  the  land 
will  be  nearly  cleared  of  all  of  this  class  of  weeds, 
provided  that  no  seeds  of  the  undesirable  plants  be 
sowed  with  the  grain  or  grass  seed,  and  none  are 
carried  to  the  field  in  manures;  and  the  same  prac- 
tice will  dispose  of  wire-worms  and  white  grubs. 
Finally,  a  little  hand -weeding  will  be  required  to 
make  the  work  complete  when  wild  carrots  and  sim- 
ilar plants  are  present.  When  the  farm  is  over- 
run with  weeds,  it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  manure 
free  from  their  seeds;  therefore,  only  commercial  fer- 
tilizers  should  be  used  on   the  fields  under  treatment 

This   short    rotation    of    wheat    and   clover   not  only 


Short    Rotations    Desirable.  363 

tends  to  clean  the  land,  but  also  improves  its  phys- 
ical (condition,  and  conserves  and  adds  nitrogen  and 
humus  to  the  soil.  To  preserve  the  productive  power 
of  the  land,  mineral  fertilizers  must  be  applied,  or 
the  cereals  used  in  the  rotation  will  fail  to  give  the 
highest  results,  and  weeds  not  before  objectionable 
will  assert  themselves.  This  short  rotation,  or  one 
similar  to  it,  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended  for 
destroying  certain  kinds  of  inferior  plants,  that  roV) 
and  crowd  out  desirable  ones,  and  cause  the  fertility 
of  the  land  to  be  diverted  into  undesirable  chan- 
nels. When  climate  or  other  conditions  make  it  un- 
desirable to  raise  the  winter  cereals,  the  rotation 
may  be  modified  by  sowing  to  turnips  or  millet  (pref- 
erably the  former,  in  rows  with  inter-tillage),  on 
the  inverted  and  prepared  clover  stubble.  If  the  land 
is  fall -plowed  after  these  crops  are  removed,  the 
ground  will  then  be  ready  to  receive  the  spring 
cereal  and  the  clover  seed  as  soon  as  the  land  is 
workable. 

Rotation  may  be  made  to  increase  production, 
while  the  land  may  receive  at  the  most  appropriate 
time  its  usual  amount  of  manures.  In  some  cases 
the  wheat  plant  is  injured  l)y  the  liberal  application 
of  them.  If  the  rotation  is  so  managed  as  to  apply 
the  manures  to  some  other  crop  in  the  rotation,  as 
maize,  the  results  in  such  cases  may  be  far  more  sat- 
isfactory than  when  they  are  applied  directly  to  the 
wheat  land.  A  liberal  application  of  farm  manures 
every  tliree  or  four  years  to  land  upon  which  clover 
is  grown,    supplies,    under    these    conditions,  relatively 


:J64  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

too  much  nitrogen  for  the  mineral  elements  they  con- 
tain. If  wheat  is  grown,  the  plants  will  be  porous  in 
structure,  the  straw  and  leaves  too  abundant,  and 
lodging  may  ensue.  If  the  same  quantity  and  kind 
of  manure  be  applied  to  maize,  beneficial  instead 
of  detrimental  results  will  be  secured,  and  the  un- 
used residue  from  the  manures  will  not  be  sufficient 
to   injure   the   other  cereal   crops   that  may  follow. 

A  four-year  rotation  may  also  be  made  to  clean 
the  land  of  some  classes  of  noxious  weeds,  as,  for 
example,  the  Canada  thistle,  and  also  to  economize 
fertility.  If  the  rotation  is  started  by  plowing  a 
timothy  or  clover  sod  for  maize,  potatoes,  or  some 
other  inter- tilled  crop,  these  pests  can  be  kept  from 
breathing  one  entire  season;  that  is,  prevented  from 
forming  leaves,  and  they  will  either  die  or  be  so 
stunted  that  they  will  not  appear  in  force  for  several 
years.  Then,  too,  the  tillage  to  kill  the  weeds  sets 
free  fertility.  The  difficulty  in  killing  this  class  of 
plants  is  the  aversion  to  using  the  hoe  or  spade  on 
stray  weeds,  and  since  the  cultivator  always  leaves  a 
few  to  flourish,  the  land  is  seldom  really  cleaned  by 
the  hoed  or  inter-tilled  crops.  Nevertheless,  frequent 
tillage  is  of  great  benefit,  because  it  improves  soil 
texture    and    conserves    moisture. 

If  the  inter- tilled  crop  is  followed  by  spring- 
sown  cereals,  opportunity  is  given  for  plowing  the 
ground  in  the  fall  and  again  in  early  spring.  These 
frequent  plowings  and  the  necessary  surface  tillage 
may  be  made  a  partial  substitute  for  a  bare  sum- 
mer   fallow    in    killing    weeds    and    liberating  fertility. 


Rotation    Without    Plowing.  365 

and  that,  too,  without  losing  the  use  of  the  land 
for  one  season.  If  the  work  is  not  timely  nor  well 
done,  then  the  land  would  better  have  been  treated 
to  a  bare  summer  fallow,  especially  when  it  is  in 
a  bad  physical  condition,  because  frequent  plo wings 
in  midsummer  are  usually  more  beneficial  than  late 
fall    and   early    spring   plowings    are. 

Certain  classes  of  weeds  infest  certain  kinds  of 
crops  much  more  than  others;  when  this  is  the  case, 
rotation  may  be  made  to  do  much  to  destroy  them, 
])y  leaving  the  particular  crop  out  of  the  rotation 
in  which  the  weed  or  weeds  appear.  This  is  not 
difficult,  since  the  ordinary  crops  of  the  farm  are 
nearly  equal  in  profit,  if  labor,  use  of  land,  seed, 
and  the  amount  of  fertility  carried  to  town  where 
the  products  are  sold,  are  all  considered.  The  farmer 
should  study  the  undesirable  plants  quite  as  much 
as  the  desirable  ones,  that  he  may  change  or  modify 
his  practices  so  as  to  attack  his  enemies  at  their 
weakest   points. 

Rotation  on  meadows  and  pastures  without  plow- 
ing can  be  made  to  prevent  many  undesirable  plants 
from  asserting  themselves.  If  the  land  be  seeded 
with  a  mixture  of  grasses  and  clover,  or  with 
grasses  or  timothy  alone,  some  of  the  seeds  are  cer- 
tain to  find  an  uncongenial  soil,  and  the  plants  either 
die  or  become  feeble,  and  even  if  they  flourish  at 
first,  many  of  them  exhaust  the  available  food  within 
their  reach  in  a  few  years.  If,  then,  young  and 
vigorous  plants  can  be  introduced,  or  those  having 
different  powers   and  habits  of   root  growth,  or  those 


366  The    Fn-tilHii    of  tin     hnul. 

which  furnish  food  for  the  others,  .1  rotation  of 
plants  may  be  made  beneficial.  Clover  is  naturally 
the  host -plant  of  the  grasses,  and  secures  its  food 
from  much  lower  depths  than  most  of  the  gi'asses 
do.  If  seeds  of  the  grasses  and  clovers  ean  V)e 
made  to  grow  in  the  declining  sod  without  plowing, 
not  only  will  the  full  amount  of  forage  be  fur- 
nished, but  undesirable  plants  will  be  prevented  from 
occupying  the  vacant  spaces.  By  sowing  a  small 
amount  of  seed  early  in  the  spring,  before  the 
freezing  has  ceased  in  the  north,  and  winter  rains 
in  the  south,  many  young  and  vigorous  plants  of 
different  species  from  those  present,  or  of  the  same, 
may  be  introduced.  In  order  to  make  the  germina- 
tion and  growth  more  certain,  immediately  after  the 
.seeds  are  sown  the  land  may  be  harrowed  once  or 
more,  and  rolled. 

Rotation  niay  be  made  to  economize  plant -food. 
Since  plants  vary  in  their  power  to  reach  and  appro- 
priate nourishment,  the  rotation  may  be  so  arranged 
as  to  grow  those  kinds  wliich  have  the  least  power, 
or  those  whidi  make  but  little  demand  on  the  soil 
when  the  land  is  least  fertile.  The  fertility  of  the 
soil  in  a  wise  rotation  is  used,  and  not  carried  along 
as  useless  capital.  Successful  agriculture  consists 
(|uite  as  much  in  taking  fertility  out  of  the  soil  judi- 
ciously as  in  putting  it  into  the  soil.  Therefore,  in 
planning  a  rotation  where  circumstances  allow  freedom 
of  choice,  the  object  should  be  to  change  inorganic 
elements  into  organic  substances:  that  is,  to  get  the 
largest    possible   crops   consistent  with    the   largest    net 


Energizhiff    Dull    Clods.  367 

results,  not  alone  on  account  of  the  iuiniediate  results, 
but  also  in  order  to  have  more  manures  to  return  to 
the  fields.  Or,  to  express  it  in  another  way,  the 
greater  the  quantity  of  plant -food  that  can  be  made 
to  rotate  through  the  plants  and  animals  back  to  the 
land,  the  better.  Transforming  the  elements  of  the 
soil  into  plant-life  doe.s  not  destroy  them, —  it  only 
<'hanges  their  combinations,  and  the  oftener  they  are 
rotated  the  better  they  are  likely  to  become,  for  as 
soon  as  left  idle  they  tend  to  become  sluggish. 

If  the  inert  matters  of  the  vegetable  mold  and  the 
rocks  be  made  to  change  their  combinations  by  tillage 
so  as  to  become  available  for  the  plant,  they  are  not 
only  on  their  way  to  become  useful,  but  also  the 
quality  of  the  elements  tends  to  be  improved,  for 
plants  break  down  easily,  and  when  broken  down 
furnish  quickly  available  nourishment  to  other  plants: 
or,  if  they  be  fed  to  animals,  the  resultant  excrement 
will  yield  up  its  nourishment  for  other  plants  still 
more  readily.  Nature  provides  plants  to  feed  animals, 
animals  to  produce  fertility,  fertility  to  feed  other 
plants  ;  this  rotation  preserves  the  elements  of  pro- 
ductive power,  while  they  are  constantly  changing 
their  form  and  character. 

To  illustrate  how  a  less  exacting  crop  may  be 
made  to  follow  advantageously  a  more  exacting  one. 
the  four -year  rotation  now  frequently  adopted  since 
the  clover  root -borer  has  made  its  appearance  may  be 
ciied.  One  year  of  clover  is  followed  by  maize  with 
or  without  manure,  this  by  the  less  exacting  oats, 
then  wheat,   phosphated  and    manured,  and   lastly,   the 


:>68  The    Feriiliiy    of   the    lAind. 

partly  self-sustaining  clovers,  or  clover  and  grasses. 
This  rotation  not  only  tends  to  clean  the  land,  but 
also  maintains  fertility,  and  makes  it  possible  to  reach 
satisfactory  results  with  but  one,  or  at  most,  two 
manurings  in  four  years,  the  less  exacting  crops  being 
able  to  flourish  on  the  residue  of  plant -food  left  from 
the  liberally  fertilized  wheat  and  decayed  clover  roots. 
Some  clover  should  always  accompany  the  hay  and 
pasture  grasses,  if  a  well-balanced  plant  ration  is  to 
be  maintained  in  the  soil. 

Rotation  not  only  gives  opportunity  to  make  eco- 
nomical use  of  the  land,  but  it  may  also  be  made  to 
head  off  many  kinds  of  insect  enemies  and  i)lant 
diseases.  If  plants  of  a  single  variety  or  species  are 
grown  continuously  on  the  same  land,  its  insect 
enemies  are  likely  to  multiply  rapidly,  since  they  are 
furnished  with  a  full  and  continuous  supply  of  the 
particular  kind  of  food  upon  which  they  thrive  best, 
while  if  a  wise  rotation  is  practiced  they  may  be 
starved  out  in  many  cases.  Fields  kept  long  in  grass 
are  likely  to  Ijecome  infested  with  wire -worms  and 
the  white  grub  (larva  of  the  May  beetle).  If  a  short 
rotation  is  practiced,  few  of  them  are  likely  to  be 
present.  In  any  case,  when  land  and  conditions  will 
permit,  a  short  rotation  is  i)referable  to  a  long  one. 
In  like  manner  many  of  the  smuts,  rusts  and  blights 
Tnay  be  entirely  prevented  or  largely  controlled  by 
superior  tillage  and  by  adopting  such  a  rotation  as 
will  give  them  but  little  opportunity  to  find  a  host 
upon  which  to  live.  Some  of  the  pests  of  the 
farm    can    migrate    to    a    considerable    distance   in   a 


Intermittent    Employment    Demoralizing.         369 

single  season  when  in  their  mature  state.  In  that 
case,  it  may  be  of  little  use  to  prevent  the  multi- 
plication of  them  on  one's  own  farm,  if  the  unwise 
practices  of  a  neighbor  have  made  his  land  a 
breeding- place  for  pests,  such  as  wire -worms  and 
white  grubs.  If  by  consultation  and  cooperation 
of  neighbors  a  common  line  of  action  could  be 
secured,  some  of  the  difficulties  of  farming  might  be 
ameliorated. 

Rotation  may  be  made  to  distribute  the  work  of 
the  year,  thereby  providing  continuous  employment, 
and  making  it  possible  to  secure  cheaper  and  better 
help  than  when  only  a  few  kinds  of  plants  are  pro- 
duced. The  baleful  results  of  raising  a  single  or 
few  products  in  extended  districts  may  be  seen  in 
California  and  the  great  wheat  districts  of  the 
northwest.  In  such  localities  there  is  little  or  no 
true  home  life,  with  its  duties  and  restraints;  men 
and  boys  are  herded  together  like  cattle,  sleep  where 
they  may,  and  subsist  as  best  they  can.  The  work 
is  hard,  and  from  sun  to  sun  for  two  or  three 
months,  when  it  abruptly  ceases,  and  the  workmen 
are  left  to  find  employment  as  best  they  may,  or 
adopt  the  life  and  habits  of  the  professional  tramp. 
It  is  difficult  to  name  anything  more  demoralizing 
to  men,  and  especially  to  boj-s,  than  this  intermittent 
labor ;  and  the  higher  the  wages  paid  and  the 
shorter  the  period  of  service,  the  more  demoralizing 
the  effect.  If  there  were  no  other  reason  for  prac- 
ticing rotation  with  a  variety  of  plants,  the  welfare 
of     the    workman     and     his     family   should    form    a 


870  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

sufficient  one.  Happily  many  largr  and  demoralizing 
wheat  ranches  are  being  divided  into  small  fanns, 
upon  which  are  being  reared  the  roof-tree,  children, 
and   flowers. 

Both  two  and  four -year  rotations  have  been  men- 
tioned. There  is  still  another,  which  should  come 
into  common  use  on  fairly  fertile,  lightish  lands,  if 
circumstances  will  permit.  It  consists  of  one  year  of 
clover,  one  of  potatoes,  and  one  of  wheat.  The  three 
crops  may  be  secured  with  but  one  plowing.  The 
clover  stubble  may  be  plowed  either  fall  or  spring, 
after  two  cuttings  of  hay,  or  one  of  hay  and  one  of 
clover  seed ;  or,  in  lieu  of  the  seed,  fall  pasture. 
The  following  spring,  if  i>otatoes  are  planted  early, 
they  may  be  harvested  in  time  to  prepare  a  seed- 
bed with  the  cultivator  and  liairow  for  wheat.  As 
potatoes  are  deep-feeding  plants,  they  draw  but 
little  nourishment  from  the  upper  portion  of  the 
soil,  while  the  tillage  nect'ssary  to  keep  down  weeds 
and  to  conserve  moisture  sets  free  an  abundance 
of  plant-food  near  the  surface,  and  eompacts  the 
sub-surface  soil,  thus  securing  ideal  conditions  for 
winter  wheat.  A  light  dressing  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  might  be  applied  to  supplement  the 
farm  manures.  If  the  land  is  sandy,  a  small  addition 
of  nitrogen  may  be  advantageously  made  Iwth  fall 
and  si)ring.  The  rotation  may  be  changed  from  a 
three  to  a  four-year  one  by  seeding  with  a  mixture 
of  gras.ses  and  clover,  which  will  continue  to  furnish 
hay  for  two  con.secutivc  years.  Although  the  three- 
year   rotation    is   but   little   practiced,    it   may   be  conli- 


Lony   Rotations.  071 

deiitly  recommended  where  potatoes,  wheat  and  clovei- 
all  do  well.  This  rotation  may  be  made  to  keep  the 
land  fairly  fertile  and  free  from  noxions  weeds.  Clover, 
hay,  straw  and  small  potatoes  form  together  a  cheap 
and  almost  ideal  ration  for  wintering  sheep,  horses 
jind  cattle,  and  snch  a  ration  needs  bnt  little  addi- 
tion of  appropriate  concentrated  foods  to  make  it 
ideal  for  milch  cows.  In  this  three-year  rotation,  the 
surface  and  subsoil  both  furnisli  their  due  proportion 
of  nourishment,  the  crops  are  among  the  most  valu- 
able produced,  the  work  is  well  distributed  through 
the  year,  and  the  principal  income  is  distributed  be- 
tween the  wheat,  the  butter  and  meats,  and  the 
potatoes,  so  that  an  entire  failure  is  not  likely  to 
occur.  Moreover,  but  few  pests  are  likely  to  get  a 
foothold,  the  plant -food  taken  up  by  the  crops  is 
largely  left  on  the  fai'in  to  be  used  again  (see  "Clover," 
in  Chapter  XIV.),  and  the  crops  are  raised  with  the 
minimum  of  plowing.  While  this  rotation  is  adapted 
only  to  certain  conditions,  longer  and  shorter  ones 
under  similar  circumstances  may  be  made  to  unlock 
fertility  and  to  yield  satisfactory  i-esults  if  intelligently 
planned  and  persistently  pursued. 

Where  the  land  is  hilly,  oi-  difficult  and  expensive 
to  cultivate,  a  long  rotation  is  desirable,  that  the 
great  amount  of  labor  necessary  to  cultivate  such 
lands  successfully  may  be  avoided.  This  is  especially 
true  of  soil  that  is  composed  largely  of  tenacious  clay. 
Then,  too,  such  land  being  usually  abundantly  supplied 
with  plant -food,  and  the  natural  home  of  most  grasses, 
the     rotation     mav    well     be     one      in     which    mixed 


372  The    Fn'filifif    of  the    lAivd. 

grasses  and  «'l()V(>rs  arc  prominent.  Long  rotations 
are  adapted  to  large  estates,  while  short  ones  may 
be  adopted  on  small,  well-drained,  high-priced  farms. 

A  few  rotations  have  now  been  given  to  illns- 
trate  the  (diief  iM'nefits  that  may  be  expeeted  from 
an  intellig<Mit.  choice  of  plants,  when  one  has  in  view 
both  the  welfare  of  the  soil  and  economy  of  effoi't. 
It  is  fnlly  realized  that  a  multitude  of  comltinations 
may  be  made  that  are  better  suited  to  local  and  indi- 
vidual wants  than  those  cited.  It  is  also  realized 
that  success  nuiy  be  secured  in  exceptional  cases  by 
the  constant  cultivation  of  a  single  species  or  variety 
(►f  plants.  The  writer  has  raised  nuiize  for  seven 
consecutive  years  successfully  in  a  little,  sheltered, 
gravelly  valley,  partly  as  an  experiment  and  partly 
])ecause  it  could  be  kept  productive  1)y  the  ap- 
])licHtion  of  cheap  manures,  easily  accessi])le,  and 
because  this  held  could  be  i)lanted  and  harvested 
earlier  than  the  other  fields,  thereby  distributing  the 
work  of  raising  maize  and  filling  the  silo  advan- 
tageously. This  case  is  <'ited,  not  only  to  show  that 
a  wise  law  may  be  l)r<)ken  under  exceptional  cases, 
but  also  to  emi)hasize  the  need  of  an  understanding 
of  the  beneficiill  laws  of  rotation  when  applied  under 
prevailing  conditions,  in  order  that  the  losses  and 
gains  by  any  particular  practice  may  be  fully  under- 
stood and  set  over  one  against  the  other.  Rotations, 
if  planned  to  suit  locality,  and  carried  on  with 
a  fair  uiulerstanding  of  natural  conditions,  may  be 
made  to  increa.se  the  fertility  of  the  farm:  that  is, 
give  it  greater  productive  power. 


APPENDIX  A. 


FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  OF  VARIOUS  PRODI  fTS. 


These  figures  are  compiled  from  the  following  sources  : 
[  1 )  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1894.  Washington,  D.  C,  Government  Printing  Office,  1895. 
(2)  Fiitterungslehre,  A.  Conradi.  Paul  Parey,  Berlin,  1895.  (3) 
How  Crops  Grow,  Samuel  W.  Johnson.  Orange  Judd  Co.,  New 
York,  1891.  (4)  Landwirtschaftlicher  Kalender  for  1896.  Paul 
Parey,  Berlin,  1896.  (5)  Landwirtschaftliche  Fiitterungslehre,  K. 
von  Wolff.  Paul  Parey,  Berlin,  1895.  (6)  Zusammensetzung  und 
Verdaulichkeit  der  Futtermittel,  Th.  Dietrich  and  J.  KTmig. 
•Tuliua  Springer,  Berlin,  1891.  (7)  Cornell  University  Experiment 
Station  Analyses.  (8)  Analyses  collected  from  various  and  inci- 
dental sources  by  the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station. 

Index  to  the  divisions  in  the  followitig  tables: 


PAGE 

Animal  Excrements 373 

Animal  Products 374 

Bedding  Materials 375 

Chaff,  Hulls  and  Shells 376 

Commercial  Plants 378 

Fertilizing  Materials 378 

Fruits,  Leaves  and  Nuts 380 

GreenFodders 38 1 

Note.— By  moving  decimal  points 
make  the  figures  expresb  percentages. 

I.  Animal  Excpements— 


PAGE 

Hay 385 

Leaves,  etc.,  of  Vegetables 390 

Mill  Products 391 

Roots 395 

Seeds  and  Seed-like  Fruits. ..  .396 

Straw 400 

Vegetables 402 

one   place  to  the  left,  the   reader  may 
Lbs.  in  1,000. 


Sample 
(Xo.  of  analyses  .-Vuthor- 

in  parentheses).  ity.  Water. 

Fresh  from  duck 4  566.  . 

"  "      geese 4  771. 

"  "      chickens 4  560. 

"  "  "  1  600. 

"  "      pigeon 4  519. 

(373) 


Ash. 
72. 
95. 


Nitro- 
gen. 
10. 
5.5 
16.3 
11. 
17.6 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

14. 

5.4 

15.4 

8.5 
17.8 


Pot- 
ash. 

6.2 

9.5 

8.5 
5.6 
iO. 


374  Animal   Excrements,  concluded. 

Sample 

(No.  of  analyses                     Author-  Nitro- 

in  parentheses).                         itv.   Water.  Ash.  gen. 

Fresh  from  horse  4  713.  .^^.  5.8 

'•       7  931.  4.4 

•  ox 4  775.  22.  3.4 

•  sheep 4  646.  36.  8.3 

•'      swine 4  724.  26.  4.5 

Huiiiat]  excrements,  fresh 4  772.  .30.  10. 

"    1  959.  6. 

urine,  fresh 4  963.  13.  6. 

Mixture  of  bcth,  fresh  4  935.  14.  7. 

Liquid  manure 4  982.  11.  1.5 

Ordinary  manure,  fresh 4  750.  38.  3.9 

Ordinary      manure,        somewhat 

rotted 4  750.  .')8.  5. 

Ordinary  manure,  well  rotted 4  790.  65.  5.8 

Pigeon  manure,  dry 1  100.  .32. 

Sewasre  fluid   4  955.  15.  5.5 

"           '•      in  larpo  cities 4  974.  11.  4.5 

Urine,  fresh,    horse 8  901.  28.  15.5 

cattle 8  938.  27.4  5.8 

sheep 8  8?2.  45.2  19.5 

"        swine 8  967.  15.  4.3 

II.  Animal  Products-              , '•'"■  "'  '""" 

Blood,  calf 8  800.  7.1  29. 

"       ox 4  790.  7.9  .32. 

sheep 8  790.  7.5  .32. 

swine 8  800.  7.1  29. 

••       meal  (3) 6  84.5  47.3  1.35. 

Fiutter 1  79.1  1.5  1.2 

Buttermilk 1  005.  7.  4.8 

(85) fi  901.2  7.2  6.4 

Chee.se 1  3.32.5  21.  .39.3 

Colostrum 4  730.  11.8  .30.7 

Cream 1  740.5  5.  4. 

Kpgs 8  672.  61.8  21.8 

"      without  shell 4  737.  9.2  20. 

Fat  renderings,  cakes  (5) 6  95.2  63.8  93.8 

Kish-flesh,  meal,  not  fatty  (4)  ...  6  128.  326.  83.9 

fattv  (61  6  108.  292.1  77.5 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

2.8 

1.7 

1.6 

2.3 

1.9 

10.9 

1.7 

1.7 

2.6 

.1 

1.8 

2.6 
3. 
19. 
2.8 
1.9 


.1 
8.3 


.6 

.4 

.4 

.9 

13.5 

.4 

1.7 

2.2 

6. 

3.3 

1.5 

3.7 

3.5 

26.2 

140. 

120. 


Pot- 
ash. 

5.3 

3.5 

4. 

6.7 
6. 


2.1 
4.9 
4.5 

6.3 
5. 
10. 


15. 
4.9 
22.6 


.6 

..*) 

1.5 

.4 
1.6 
2.1 
1.2 

.9 
1.3 
1.5 
1.6 
1*9 
3. 


AmnutJ    Products,  concluded. 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyses 
in  parentheses). 


Author- 
ity.  Water. 


Flesh   albumin   (2)  6 

"      fodder  meal  (144)  6 

"      meal 8 

"      calf 8 

"      ox 8 

"      swine 8 

■'      of  mammals 4 

"       "  living  calf 4 

"       "  living  ox 4 

"       "  living  sheep 4 

"       "  living  swino 4 

"  ■'  pulverized  dead  animals  8 


Milk,  cow's 


"        (793) 

goat's  (38) 

marc's  (47) 

sheep's 4 

"    m)  6 

••     8 

skim 1 

"      4 

■'      (96) 6 

"      centrifugal  separation 


(-) 


Milk,  sow's   (  7) , 
Whey 


(4Gi, 


(5 

6 

1 

4 

6 

from  gnat  milk 4 

Wool,  washed 4 

unwashed 4 

III.  Bedding  Matepials— 

Beech  leaves,  August t 

Fir  needles 4 

Heath 8 

Larch  needles 4 

Moss 4 

Qak  leaves \ 


123.6 
106.7 
278. 
780. 
770. 
740. 
763. 
662. 
597. 
591. 
.520. 
57. 
870. 
875. 
871.7 
857.1 
908. 
816. 
808. 
860. 
902.5 
911. 
904.3 

906. 

845.5 

929.7 

933. 

933.8 

920. 

128. 

150. 


560. 
135. 
200. 
140. 
2.50. 
160. 


Ash. 
119.7 
40.8 
156. 
12. 
12.6 
10.4 
10.2 
.38. 
46.6 
31.7 
21.6 
374. 
7.5 
7.2 
7.1 
7.6 
3.5 
7.3 
8.9 
8.4 
8. 
7.9 


7.4 

11. 
6. 
5.4 
6.5 
5.9 
9.8 

70.8 


Nitro- 
gen. 
99.4 
113.9 
97. 
34.9 
36. 
.34.7 
35.2 
25. 
26.6 
22.4 
20. 
65. 
5.3 
5.4 
5.7 
6.8 
3.2 
11.2 
10.4 
5.5 
5.6 
4.6 


4.9 
10.3 

1.5 
.9 

1.4 

1.5 
94.4 
54. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 
21, 
7. 
63. 
5.8 
4.3 
4.6 
4.2 
13.8 
18.6 
12.3 
8.8 
139. 
1.9 
2. 
1.9 
3.7 
2.1 
2.6 


o  2 
2.1 

2.1 

6. 

1.4 

.9 
1.1 

.8 
1.8 

.7 


Ltis.  in   l.tRiO 


21.6 
12.2 
16.6 
34.3 
20.6 


13. 

8. 
10. 

10.: 


1.8 

1. 

1.1 

1.3 

1.6 


37o 

Pot- 
ash. 
3. 
1. 
7. 
4.1 
5.2 
3.9 
3.8 
2.4 
1.7 
1.5 
1.8 
3. 
1.8 
1.7 
1.7 
2.1 
.8 
1.6 
2.9 
1.8 
1.9 
2.1 


1.1 

1.8 
1.7 
2_ 

2.3 

1.9 

56.2 


46.1       10. 


4.4 
1.3 
2.1 
1.6 
3.4 
3.a 


376  Bedditif/    Mah  rials,  conrluded. 

Sample                                                                             Pho»- 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author-                           Nitro-    phorio  Pot- 
in  parentheses),                          il.v.    Water.     Ash.        jten.       ariil.  ash. 

Pine  needles 4      126.        40.3        9.          2.  \.:i 

Reed 4       180.         Xi.r,                     1.8  «i. 

Rush 4       140.         56.                       4.:J  16. !• 

Seaweed 4       150.       146.7       16.4        4.2  17.7 

Sedge  grass 8      140.         16.2                    4.6  17.7 

»»T      >-i.       MM     WW     ••  .    >.>.      ..  I-hs.   in   1.000. 

IV.  Chaff,  Hulls  and  Shells— 


Barley  1  130.8  10.1         2.7        '.>.'.> 

4  143.  118.6  4.8         2.4         ».:i 

"       (3) 6  14.5.  128.4  4.7        2.4        9.4 

Beans,  field  4  150.  54.7  16.8        2.7      35.5 

"       2  150.  74.  17. 

"       (2) 6  150.  74.3  17.7        2.7      35.3 

5  1.50.  .55.  16.8 

Bean,  soja 2  110.  81.  9.6 

"     (6)  6  120.  81.  10.1 

Brassica  rapa  oleifera  (2) 6  152.  78.  5.5 

Chocolate  tree  (77ieo6roma  Cacao) 

(14) 6  100.  77.7  22.7 

Clover,  red  (4) 0  160.  84.8  22.3 

white  (1) 6  1.50.  75.8  .36.6 

Corn    cobs  (18) 1  107.  14.  3.84 

1  120.9  8.2  5. 

4  140.  4.5  2.;i 

5  131.  23.  5.6 

•'      ground(4)  6  100.  31.8  13.1 

Cotton   (4) 1  104.  26.  6.4 

"       1  106.3  26.1  7.5 

(1) 6  133.  27.  6.2 

FIhx  iCamelina  saliva) 4  112.  43.3  4.3 

(1) 6  111.6  72.3  4.3 

5  112.  72.  4.3 

"     (Linum    tisitatisnimum) .  . . .  4  116.  .53.9  5.6 

"  "  (1)..  0  115.8  57.8  5.5 

5  116.  .58.  5.6 

Gleditschia  glabra  (1) 6  82.4  29.5  7.2 

Lentil    (Lens    esculenta)  (2) 6  150.  70  1  29.3 

Lentil  {Lens  esculenta) 5  140.  85.  .33.9 

Lupine  (fruit  shell) 4  14.3.  19.1  7.2        1.  9.4 


1.7 

9.7 

3.6 

9.3 

4.5 

15.3 

4.2 

16.8 

4.2 

17. 

.6 

6. 

.2 

2.3 

1.8 

10.8 

4.3 

10.4 

1.5 

12.7 

1.5 

12.7 

4.5 

1.-.. 

4.4 

15. 

1.8 

10.1 

8.5 

8.5 

Chaff,  Hulls    and    kShells,  roncludfd.  .'5/7 

Sample  Phos- 

(Xo.  of  analyses                       Author-  Nitro-     phoric      Pot- 

in  parenthesesj.                          ity.  Water.  Ash.  eeii.       acid.       asli. 

Lui>ine  (fruit  .shell) 2  125.  29.  7.2 

'•      (7) r.  150.  .-)9.2  10.8          1.7         9.."? 

Medick,    Hlack    [Medicaqn    lupu- 

Ihia]    (I)  chaff (i  150.  80  4  45.           4.2       17. 

Millet    (1)  "     (i  120.  111.8  7.5         1.7         4.4 

"     5  112.  112.  7.7 

Oats   "     4  14.'!.  71.2  t;.4          l.:i          4.5 

•'    "     2  1.%.  110.  7.8 

■•   1.52)    "     (i  i;{8.  104.7  8.            1.4         4.5 

Peanut  (fruit  .shell) 1  100.  29.9  10.4         1.4         8.1 

'      4  106.  .30.  11.4         1.7         9.5 

"     (2) (•)  lOe.  .'iO.  ll.:i         1.8         0.8 

5  106.  .30.  11.4 

(seed  shell)  (1) 6  108.  51.  .35.8         8.9         8.9 

Peas  (4) hulls  6  130.  .58.8  17.4         1.7         9.5 

"      "    2  140.  72.  16.5 

Rape  {Bnm.sica  Xopiix  oJfiifera)"    4  140.         70.1  6.4         I!. 7         9.5 

"    2  122.  65.  6.4 

"  (12)"    0  160.         70.6  5.5         .'!.<;         9.2 

"    5  129.         70.  6.7 

Hire  (:i) '•     1  82.  1.32.  5.8 

•'     •'    4  100.  90.  5.           1.7         1.4 

••      (10)    "    6  100.  145.  5.8         1.7         1.4 

"    5  97.  157.  5.4 

Rye    chaff..   3  143.  82.7  5.8        o.ti        5.2 

•'      "    ..2  143.         75.  5.7 

••      (4) "     ..6  145.  82.6  7.           5.5         5.1 

••      winter •'    ..   4  143.  82.7  5.8        5.6         5.2 

Horghnm  (S.  Tafariri(m)  (\)"    ..   6  145.         72.3  5.6         1.7         4.3 

"         (S.vidfjare) '•    ..   5  57.  80.  6.2 

Spelt,   winter "    ..   4  143.  81.4  5.6        5.9         7.7 

(1)   ••    ..6  145.  83.5  4.6         6.           7.7 

Vetch  or  tare  (4) "    ..6  143.  87.8  14.9        2.7       35.1 

"    ..5  150.  80.  13.6 

tVheat "    ..   1  80.5       71.8  7.9         7.  4.2 

"      "    ..3  143.         92.  7.2        4.  8.4 

•'      "    ..   2  143.  119.  6.8 

'^      (31) ••    ..6  160.  101.  7.4         3.8         8.2 

"     winter "    ..  4  143.  92.  7.2        4.          8.4 


378  Cininiii  trial    Phiiif 

V.  Commercial  Plants- 

Saniple 
(No.  of  annlysen  Auth 

in  parent li cues).  ily. 

KIhx,  fiber 4 

stems 4 

"      roasted 4 

Orape  stalks 4 

"       must 4 

"        wood  and  twips 4 

Hemp,  stt'ms 4 

Hops,  whole  plant 4 

"       stems 4 

flowers 4 

Mulberry  leaves 4 

Tobacco  leaves 4 

Tea  leaves 4 

Wine   grounds 4 

VI.  Fertilizing  Materials— 

Aninioiilto 1 

Aninioniiun  s'.ijlato 4 

Anil  of  deciduous  trees 4 

•'     "  everpreen     "     4 

Aslu's,  leached  wood 1 

Bat  guano 1 

Blood  meal 4 

Bone,    ash 4 

black    1 

•'       8 

used 8 

'•      dissolved 1 

charcoal 4 

meal 4 

Calcium  phosphate 4 

Carnallit  4 

Castor  pomace 1 

Clover,  red,  root  nodules 7 

Cora  smut 8 

Cotton-hull  ashes 1 

Fish  gxxano,  Norway 4 

lias   lime 4 

Horn  meal  and  shavings 4 


M.!.. 

Ill     I.INNI. 

lor- 

.    Water. 

Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Pho« 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot 
ash. 

100. 

6.8 

.7 

.3 

120. 

31.1 

4.2 

9.7 

100. 

7. 

.8 

.3 

G30. 

21.2 

5.6 

1.8 

10.9 

840. 

4.7 

1.8 

.6 

3  1 

.V)0. 

12.7 

4.1 

1.4 

4.1 

108. 

31.7 

2.1 

5.5 

140. 

72.9 

25. 

5.8 

17.9 

100. 

.38.3 

15.7 

3.9 

11.2 

120. 

66.3 

32.2 

11.1 

23. 

720. 

30.1 

14. 

2.4 

7.3 

180. 

140.7 

24.5 

6.6 

40.9 

80. 

47.6 

35.6 

7.2 

16.4 

f).">0. 

36.7 

4.6 

17.2 

.*>8.8 

113. 

.34.3 

40. 

205. 

."><i. 

90. 

35. 

100. 

.■)0. 

90. 

■'.5 

60. 

;t02. 

15.1 

12.7 

400. 

82. 

38. 

13.1 

i:u. 

82. 

118. 

12. 

7. 

60. 

910. 

.354. 

3. 

46. 

28.28 

i         60. 

840. 

10. 

32. 

1. 

i       100. 

840. 

.1. 

26 

1. 

150. 

780. 

5. 

160 

130. 

232. 

23. 

176. 

1. 

277. 

.i97. 

15. 

195. 

I. 

\       261. 

98. 

1         95. 

.")."). 

17.5 

11. 

■       793.7 

11. 

»        83. 

20.0 

78. 

St.  5 

227.5 

\        98. 

340. 

85. 

1.38. 

3. 

1         70. 

91V. 

4. 

2. 

1         85. 

230. 

102. 

:>:j 

Fertilizinq    Mftfrriah,  continupd. 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyses  Author- 

in  parentheses),  ity.   Water. 

Kainit 4      127. 

Kieserit 4 

Marl 8 

"     (N.J.) 

Molasses  ash  from  siifrar  boot . . 

Muck 

Nitrate  of  potash 

"  "  soda  

Oleomargarine  refuse - 

Oyster-shell  lime 

Potassium    and    magnesium    sul- 
fate   4 

Potassium  chloride,  80% 4 

Potassium  sulfate,  90% 3 

Pea,  cow,  roots 8 

Peat 1 

"    ashes 8 

Phosphate,  Florida 4 

"  Canada 4 

"  South  Carolina 4 

Phosphate,    South    Carolina    di--- 

solved  rock 8 

Peruvian  guano 4 

Seaweed 8 

"        ashes 1 

Sewage 4 

Soot,  wood 4 

"    coal 4 

Spent  tan-bark  ashes 1 

Star  fish 8 

Soot  from  wood 8 

"         "    hard  coal 4 

Sodium   nitrate 4 

Sugar  house  scum 8 

Sumac  waste 1 

Sylvinit 4 

Tankage 1 

Tannery  refuse 4 

Thomas  slag 4 

Tobacco  stalks 1 


Nitre- 
Ash.        gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


207. 

56.9 

15. 

«."). 
500. 

19.3 

14. 

85.4 
150. 

116. 

11. 

22. 
101.6 
615. 

.50. 


120. 
150. 
439.4 

14.7 
974. 

50. 

50. 

36. 
087.8 

50. 

50. 

26. 
,345. 
030.6 

65. 
100. 
6.33. 

61.8 


843. 


965. 


11. 
130.9 
157. 
121. 


199.7        6.8 
8.5 
925. 


880. 
430. 


11. 
282. 
331. 


272. 
281. 


410. 


188. 


70. 
19.3 

4.5 
13. 
24. 


160.9       17.2 


13. 
24. 
155. 
12. 
11.9 

67. 
14. 

37.1 


6.4 
.8 

6. 
320. 
390. 
265. 

152. 
140. 

4.3 

3. 

1.9 

4. 

4. 
16.1 

2.5 

4. 

4. 

15. 


118. 
13. 
175. 
6.5 


379 

Pot- 
ash. 
128. 
75. 

7.9 
52. 
.321. 

1.5 
451.9 


272. 
527 
499. 

14.6 
1.8 

15. 


33. 
26.6 

9.2 

2. 

24. 

1. 
20.4 

4.8 
23. 

1. 


32.5 
124. 


50.2 


380 


Fertilizing   Materials,  conchulKl. 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyse*  Author- 

iu  parentheses.)  ity.    Water. 

Tobacco  Btemn 4       180. 

Wool  dust,  etc 4       100. 


VII.  Fruits,  Leaves  and  Nir- 

Apple  leaves,  collected  in  May  . . . 

"  "  "  "   Sept... 

fruit 


"  trees  (young),  branclu-s. . . 
"  '•  roots 

'•  ••  trunks 

•*  "  ••  whole  plant 

.\pricots,  fresh 

Banana 

Blackberries 

Blueberries 

("hprries.  fruit 


Cherry  trees  (young),  branches. 

"  "  roots  . . . . 

•'  trunks... 

Chestnuts,  native 

"  cultivated 

Spanish 

China  berries 

Cranberries,    fruit 

"  vines 

Currants 

Orapes,  fruit  ( fresh ) 


wood  of  vine 

Gooseberries 

Lemons 

Nectarines 

Olives,  fruit 

"       leaves  

wood  of  larger  branches.. 
"      "  small        " 

Oranges,  California 

Florida 


72;J.(! 
607.1 
853. 

ail. 

«.\(y. 

♦)47. 

.-)17. 

608.:} 

8.51.6 

662.5 

889.1 

826.9 

861. 

825. 

795. 

672. 

532. 

400. 

400. 

100. 

16.5.2 

895.9 

860.2 

830. 

830. 

903. 

838.3 

790. 

580. 

424. 

145. 

187.5 

852.1 

877.1 


Nitro- 
Abh.       gen. 
64.7       16.4 
.340.         .-.2. 

Lbs.  in  1.000. 


Phos- 
phoric, 
arid. 
9.2 

i:i. 


•23.3 
34.6 
3.9 
2.2 
6.5 
15.9 
11.7 

4.9 

11.5 

.5.8 

1.6 

5.8 

3.9 

7.8 

12.2 

8.1 

16.2 

17.8 

26.6 

41.3 

1.8 

24.5 

5.3 


29.7 
3.3 
5.6 
.5. 

14.2 
25.1 
9.4 
9.6 
4.3 


7.4 

8.9 

1.3 

.6 


3.5 
1.9 
.8 
1.5 
1.4 
1.8 


11.8 


11.9 


1.6 


1.5 
1.2 
1.8 
9.1 
8.8 
8.9 
1.9 
1.2 


1.9 
.1 
.3 
.4 

1.1 
.6 


.4 

3.9 


4.3 
.3 
2.7 
1.1 
.9 
1.4 
4.2 


1.2 
2.6 
1.1 
1.2 


Pot- 
ash. 
28.2 
3. 


3.'.t 

1.9 

.8 

.4 

.!« 

.<1 

1.7 

2.9 


.6 
6.3 


:3.3 
.0 

3.2 


1.3 


8.6 
7.6 
1.8 
•J 

2.1 
4.8 


Fruits,    Lfai;es    and    Xnfs, 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses  Auth 

in  parentlipsps).  ity 

Palm  nut 5 

Peaches,  fruit 1 

"  wood  of  hranches 1 

Peanuts,  hulls 1 

"         kernels  1 

•'         vines,  after  blooming. ..  1 

"     before       •'         ...  1 

Pears,  fruit 1 

"      4 

trees  (young),  branches. ..  1 

"  "         roots 1 

"  "  "        trunks 1 

Pineapples 1 

Plums 1 

"       4 

Prunes  1 

Raspberries 1 

Strawberries,  fruit 1 

••      4 

•'  vines 1 

Whortleberries 8 

VIII.  Green  Fodders — 

Alfalfa I 

4 

■•       (11) 0 

Apple  pomace,  silage 6 

Aspen,   American  (4) 0 

Barley,    during    and    at    end    of 

bloom  (11) G 

Bean,  horse  (  I'icia  Faba) 1 

Bean,  horse  (  V'd-ia  Faba),  begin- 
ning of  bloom  {']) 6 

Beech,     European,     August     and 

September  (4) (i 

Birch,    European    white,    in    Au- 
gust (31 0 

Buckwheat,  in  bloom 4 

"     (7) a 

Clover,  Alsike 1 


•Xudeji. 


381 


or- 
Water. 

Ash. 

Nitro- 
Ken. 

Phos- 
phoric 
aci'l. 

Pot- 
ash. 

76. 

18. 

13.4 

878.5 

3.2 

..5 

2.4 

582.6 

19.3 

9. 

2.2 

5. 

100. 

29.9 

10.4 

1.4 

8.1 

100. 

22.1 

40.1 

8.2 

8.8 

100. 

123.6 

2.9 

9. 

:{00. 

74.5 

3.2 

11.6 

839.2 

5.4 

.9 

•3 

.8 

831. 

3.3 

.6 

.5 

1.8 

840. 

7.6 

.4 

.8 

667. 

14. 

.7 

1.1 

493. 

17.1 

.7 

1.3 

892.8 

3.5 

2 

474.3 

5.4 

1.8 

2 

2.4 

838. 

2.9 

.4 

1.7 

773.8 

4.9 

1.6 

.7 

3.1 

818.2 

5 . 5 

1.5 

4.8 

3.5 

908.4 

6. 

1.5 

1.1 

3. 

902. 

3.3 

.5 

.7 

•ii3.4 

4.8 

3.5 

824.2 

4.1 
Lbs. 

in  1,000 

753. 

22.5 

7.2 

1.3 

5.6 

740. 

19.2 

7.2 

1.6 

4.5 

760. 

22.1 

6.2 

1.5 

3.5 

7.")0. 

10.5 

3.2 

1.5 

4. 

700. 

28. 

6.4 

1.8 

7.2 

686.3 

20.1 

3.3 

2. 

5.1 

747.1 

6.8 

3.3 

13.7 

8.50. 

19.8 

5.1 

1.3 

8. 

570. 

31.2 

11. 

1.7 

4.7 

550. 

15.7 

12.7 

1.3 

3.4 

850. 

12.4 

3.9 

.8 

3.8 

837. 

11.4 

4. 

•  7 

2.8 

818. 

14.7 

4.4 

1.1 

2 

382 


Orcen     FofMcrs,    rotifi 

Author 


Hllt'tT . 


Sample 
(No.  of  Annlyses 
in  parentheKea).  ity 

(.'lover,  Alsike 4 

"      (3) r, 

(HovcT,   KdkliHrii.    Iii-t;iniiiiii;    iiinl 

full  hlcHMII  (fi( <> 

Clov 


•T,  cnnisdn 


n-<l. 


( !•  1 

■rv   \<niiit 


IKi, 


1 
4 
i\ 
4 

t; 

•'       in  liiul 4 

I  II  I r. 

1)1. .oiu 4 

(42  I f. 

1 

"        white 1 

"             •'       in  bloom 4 

(:{| <■' 

•'         jjastUTf 4 

••        (-M)    <J 

yt-llo\v }S 

Erica     \Miliraris,     lit-fon-      Mtxini- 

inj<  (;ti   C 

Esparsettc,  in  bloom 4 

••     (3) (; 

(Jrapc,    July    ti 

•'         Autfust    (i 

harvest    (! 

Hop,  leaves  and  stems    (i 

Italian     rye-irra^s   (  I.olium    Jtali- 

cum  i,  in  bloom  (Si 0 

Lupine,  yellow  i /.iijjiiiiis  liitfux), 

beginninir  of  bloom  (7) G 

Maize,  fodder 1 

"       4 

••       (4.->) 6 


European  seed  (.14  I C 

husks 8 

stalks « 

silage 1 


Water. 

820. 

818. 

7!»7. 
8L'.'.. 
81.-). 
81.-.. 
80«). 
KfJ. 
820. 
841. 
800. 
790. 
800. 
810. 
80.".. 
81.-.. 
750. 
8j0. 
8:{0. 

.■.00. 
800. 
800. 
740. 
700. 
540. 
000. 

748.5 


Ash. 
8.0 
14.7 

•_•:!.  4 

II.:! 

18.0 

14. 

18. 

14.7 

14. 

i:{.7 

10. 


I4.:( 

21.1 
10.4 

i:t.5 

14.7 

2'.t. 

11. 

12.2 

1<».8 

18..{ 

49.2 

41. 

28.4 


Nitro- 
gen. 

4.4 

0.6 

4.:i 

4..t 
4.5 
0. 
0.9 

5.:{ 
5.:t 

4.8 
5.4 
5..'{ 
5.6 
5.6 
7.1 
5.:{ 


5.0 
5.1 


PhoK- 

phorir 

arid. 

.9 

1 


878. 

10. 

4.7 

786.1 

48.4 

4.1 

829. 

10.4 

1.9 

828. 

14.7 

2.2 

822. 

12. 

1.9 

806. 

12.2 

2.7 

801.9 

5.0 

1.8 

808.0 

12.5 

2.^ 

779.5 

2.8 

(irecn    Vtxhhrs.  ( (nifini(*(l . 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                       Author- 
in  parentheses),                          it.v.  Water.     .\sli. 
Maple  foliage,  iu  summer  (Si  ....   (»  .")00.         72.9 
Medick,    black    {itedivago    lupu- 

h'mr),  beginning  of  bloom  (4)  (i  800.         ]fi.4 

Millet 1  ti25.H 

(ti) t;  870.  l'_'. 

'•      .lapanesf 1  710.5 

.Mixi'd   grasses 1  iV.W.'l       '.Vl.l 

A  700.         22.1 

ill    bloom 4  7.")0.  17..") 

(:{1  I (;  700.         21. 

Mohar    (Setaria   Germa nic<i  }.  lie- 

ginning  of  bloom 4  7.'i(».         17.4 

Mohar  {Setaria  Gennanicn  ).  dur- 
ing bloom  ((») ■:>  7;{o.        2;!. 

Mulberry    (34) ti  002.7       ;!.'..  1 

Mustard,  white,  beginning  to  full 

bloom  (O) 0  8.".1.  14.2 

Needles   from  pines  and    lirs    in 

fall  (3) 0  :>0K.         10.7 

Nettle  ([Jrtica  dioica),  young  (2)  0  8.i2.         22.7 

Oats,  in  bloom  (12) (J  708. .'>       17.0 

ripening   (11) 0  5.'iG.         28. 

"      green 8  810.  18.8 

••     4  810.  14.2 

Oat-fodder 1  8.'!3.0       13.1 

Orchard    grass     (Dorti/li.s  qlawe- 

rata) ' ' 4  700. 

Orchard    grass    (DactijJls    glohit- 
rata),  before  and  at  beginning 

of  bloom  (5) 0  7%.  18.0 

Orchard    grass    (Dactylis    glome- 

r«<rt),  in  bloom  (12) 0  031.4       20.0 

Orchard    grass  (Dactylis    glome- 

rata),  luxuriant  growth  (2)..   6  801.  10. 

Pea 4  815.         13.9 

■'    (3) G  824.  13.3 

Pea,    flat    (Lathyrus    sylvestris), 

beginning  to  end  of  bloom  (6)  0  716.         19.3 
Prickly      comfrey      {Symphytum 

aaperrimum  I     (17) 0  885.  19.8 


Nitro- 

jjen. 

13. 


0.1 


9.1 
5.4 
4.8 
4.9 


3.7 
3.7 
4.9 

17.8 


Phos- 
phoric 
aoid 

3.5 


Pot- 
ash. 

8. 

4. 

4.1 

4.7 

3.4 

7  1 
4.7 
0.2 

0.3 

0.1 

8.4 


2.9 

:!.4 
o.« 

8.M 

5.0 
3.8 

5.9 


3.3 

1.3 

0.5 

4.;! 

1.0 

7.C 

5.1 

1.3 

0.5 

5.1 

1.5 

5  2 

5.7 

1.0 

5. 

1.3 

1.8 

J.  8 

3.9 

.7 

4.8 

384  Gri'n     Fodders,   coutnnnii . 

Saiii|ile  •  I'hoH- 

'\o.  of  iiiialyfirK  Author-  Nitro-     i)horir      Pot- 

in  parent  he.se»).  ity      Wator      Ash.       b>*ii.         iw\i\.        ash. 

I'rickly      coiufrey     ( Si/mphytinn 

atperrimum) 1       84:t.f;       24.5         4.2         1.1         7.5 

Rape  ( Brassicn  Napua  oleifera), 

hegiuning  of  bloom 4       870.         10.5        4.6         1.2        ."i.S 

Rape  ( liraxxica  Napiix  oleifera  J, 

in  bloom  (6) (i      8.55.         i:».4        4.5         1.5        rj.f. 

Hye 1       621.  3.:i         1.5        7.:i 

••     4       760.         16.:i        5.3        2.4        C.'J 

••     (9) r.       766.         17.4        5.:{        2.5        7.1 

••     h       (WW.         21.5        4.8        2.6        7.6 

••     grass 4       71 W.         20.4         5.7         2.2         7.1 

Rye  grass,  Enirlish  ( Lolitim  per- 

ennr),\n  h\<Mn\  (\:\) 6       7.')2.         26.  4.7         2.8       11. 

Rye       grass,       Frt-iich       (A  vena 

eUttior)   (9) 6       6>s4.8       29.  5.6         2.2         9.3 

Serradella,  in  bloom 1       82.".. !»       18.2        4.1         1.4        4.2 

4       hOd.         19.6         4.8         2.2         7.7 

(6) 6       ^2:i.  14.5         .'..  1.0         5.5 

Sorghum    (S.     nucchurinum ),   in 

bloom 8       77.i.  V.\.  4.  .8         I!. 6 

Sorghum     ( S.    xurcharinum),    in 

bloom 1       821.9  2.J  .9         2.3 

Sorghum    ^.S.    saccharinum ) ,    in 

bloom  (26)   6       801.5       13.7         3.3  .7         3.4 

Sorghum    (S.     saccharinum ) ,    in 

bloom 4       773.  14.  4.  .8         3.9 

Spurry   ( Spenjula    arvetisis),    in 

bloom  ( 9 1 6        80.).  2 1 .  :!.8  2.5  5.9 

Timothy,    beginning    to    etui    of 

bloom 4       700.         20.5         5.4         2.4         7.1 

Timothy,    beginning    to    einl    of 

bloom  (22) 6       669.         21.5         4.8         2.6         7.6 

Vetch,  in  bloom  (6) 6       825.  15.4         5.1         1.2         4.3 

beginning  of  bloom  (3). . .   6       845.         19.4         5.9         1.9         7. 
Vetch,    Russian   or  hairy   (  I'iria 
villosn),  beginning  to  eml  of 

bloom  (7) 6       834.  13.9         6.6         1.6         4.! 

Vetch,  kidney  ( AuthylUs  viilut- 
rariiil.  before  and  beffiiiiiiiiu 
of  bloom  (4 1 6       N.'O.  13.5         3.8  l.I  3.1' 


(hi'tii     Fodders,  concluded.  385 

Sample  Phos- 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author-  Nitre-    phoric     Pot- 
in  parentheses),                         ity.  Water.  Ash.      gen.        acid.      ash. 
Vetch,  kidney   (Anthyllis  vulne- 

raria;,  in  bloom 4  830.  10.9        4.5         1.          .3. 

Wheat  (4) 6  767.  21.9        5.4         1.5        7. 

IX.  Hay-  , LbsMni^ooo 

Alt&Ua.  (Med icago  sativa)  (21)...   1  84.  74.        22.9 

1  65.5  70.7      21.9        5.1       10.8 

Alfalfa     (Medicago    sativaj,    be- 
ginning of  bloom 4  160.  62.         23.           5.3       14.6 

Alfalfa    (Medicago     sativaj,    be- 
ginning of  bloom 2  1G7.  60.         23. 

Alfalfa    (Medicago     sativaj     be- 
ginning of  bloom  (15) 6  157.5  73.1       23.9        5.4       14.9 

Alfalfa     (Medicago      sativaj     in 

bloom(117) 6  153.  80.2      22.9        6.1       17.9 

Alfalfa     (Medicago     sativaj     in 

bloom 5  160.  62.         23. 

Alfalfa,  Black  Medick  (Medicago 

lupulinaj   (7) 6  160.  75.2       24.6         5.4       20.8 

Ipine   bay 4  150.  29.7       18.5        2.7        7.7 

"(43) 6  145.  64.3       19.3        6.8       18.0 

••    5  143.  62.        21.0 

Bean  (field),  in  bloom  (1) 6  160.  67.5      29.6        6.4      20.5 

"     soja,  whole  plant 1  63.  64.7      23.2        6.7       lO.S 

Bl&ck  grui^^  fJuncus  Oerardi J  {20)  1  95.  70.         12. 

Blue  melilot  (Melilotus  carulettsj  1  82.2  130.5       19.2        5.4       2?. 

Buckwheat  (3) 1  99.  55.          8.3 

4  160.  51.7       13.           0.1       24.2 

2  121.  52.          6.6 

(12) 6  160.  70.2        7.7        6.1       24.2 

5  104.  50.          6.2 

Japanese 1  57.2  16.3        8.5      33.2 

Couch  gras.s  ( Agropyrum  repensj 

(5) 1  143.  60.         14.1 

Clover,    Alsike     (Trifolium     hy- 

hridumj    (9) 1  97.  83.         20.5 

Clover,    Al.sike    (Trifolium     hy- 

briduMj 1  99.4  111.1       23.4         6.7       22.3 

Clover,    Alsike     (Trifolium     hy- 

bridumj 4  160.  40.         24.           4.1       11.1 

Z 


:J86  Hay,   rontiniieil. 

Sample  Phot- 

(No.  of  analyne.t  Author-  Nitro-     phorio      Pot- 

iu  parenthexes).  ity.    Water.     Ash.      bj-ii.        acM.        anh 

Clover,     Alsike     (Trifolium    hy- 

bridumj 2       IfiO.         61.         23.7 

Clover,     Alsike    (Trifolium     hy 

bridum},  in  bloom  {10)  «       160.         71.2      21. G        ."..         i:i.9 

Clover.    AUike     (Trifolium     hy- 

bridum  J,  in  bloom 5       160. 

Clover,  Bokhara /^ir«'/i7o/M.'»  a /<>ay  1         74.:!       77.         19.8        j.6       IH.J 

2       136, 
(Mover,  Bokh&TtL ( Afelilotus  alba), 

young 5       143. 

Clover,    crim.son    (Trifolium     in- 

earnatum) 4       167.         50.7       !!»..'.         3.0       11.7 

Clover,    crimson    (Trifolium     in- 

earnatum) 2       130.         (W. 

Clover,    crimson    (Trifolium    in- 

earnatum)   (9) (•       18.!.         77.         20..')         4.  13.1 

Clover,    crimson    (Trifolium    in- 

camatum) ;">       167. 

Clover,  mammoth  red 1       114.         87.2       22.3        T^.Tt       12.2 

Clover,  red  (Trifolium  pratenxe ) 

(38) I       1.".3.         62.         19.7 

Clover,  red  (Trifolium  pratrngej  1       113.;!      69.3      20.7        3.8      22. 

2       \W.         .".♦;.         21.4 
Clover,  red  (Trifolium  pratrnse / 

(59) 6       163.         t;2.is       21.8         5.6       lS.it 

Clover,  red  (Trifolium  pratensf )  5       160.         .">.!.         19.6 

Clover,  red.  young 4       167.         82. .t      35.5       lU.         29.7 

••      in  bud 4       165.         68.4       24.5         6.9       25. :i 

(20) 6       162.         80.1       22.9         6.9       25.4 

••      in  bloom  (6)  1       208. 

4       160. 

(1781 6       170. 

ripening 4       1.50. 

Clover,    red   (Trifolium   medium) 

(10) .■ 1       212. 

Clover,    red  (Trifolium  medium)  1        114. 
Clover,    red  (Trifolium  medium) 

in  bloom  (5) 1       2(i9. 

Clover,  white,  in  bloom  (7) 1         97 

1 


60. 

24. 

77. 

19.8 

8;i. 

2.5.3 

80. 

26.7 

50.7 

19.5 

69. 

17. 1 

77. 

20.5 

51. 

19.5 

87.2 

22.3 

6(). 

18.4 

57.6 

19.7 

5.6 

18.6 

62. 1 

21.2 

5 .  '> 

18.7 

44.7 

12.5 

4  4 

10. 

f.I. 

17.1 

87.2 

•>.)  ■> 

5.5 

12.2 

66. 

7s. 4 

83. 

25.1 

27.5 

5.2 

18.1 

Ash. 
61.1 

Nitro- 
23.2 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

7.8 

Pot- 
ash. 
Ki.l 

9o. 

23.8 

67. 

23.8 

7.8 

13.2 

60. 

23.2 

99 

17.9 

24.6 

4.5 

20.9 

60. 

li. 

61.8 

12. 

3.5 

1.3. 

11.9 

5.6 

12.7 

02.5 

20.8 

7.6 

24.6 

Hit  (I,   ront'nined.  .3S' 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses  Autlior- 

in  parentheses).                         ity.  Water. 

Clover,  white,  in  bloom 4  165. 

"       "        "       2  167. 

"       "        "       (G) 6  160. 

•'             "       •'        '•       5  165. 

French  rye  grass  (A  vena  eUii'wr), 

cut  ill  bloom  (15) 6  143.         81.2       16.6         6.         24. 

French  rye  grass  (Avena  elatior), 

cut  in  bloom 5  143. 

Hedysarum  coronarium 1  93.9 

Hungarian    grass    (Seturiii     Hal- 

H-a)     (12) 1  77. 

Hungarian  grass  ^iiV^rt*-(« /^(//crt^  1  76.9 
Italian   rye    grass  (LoHioh   Ituli- 

c«w^  cut  in  bloom 1  87.1 

Italian  rye   grass  ( LoUnm   Itali- 

(•((»i^,  cut  in  bloom  (6) (>  120. 

Italian    rye   grass  (Lolitim    Itali- 

Ci(»i^,  cut  in  bloom 5  143.         78.         17.9 

Kentucky   blue    grass    ( Poa   pro- 

teii.iisj 1  103.5 

Lotus  villosus ]  115.2 

Lupine,  yellow  (3) (>  160. 

Maize,   stalks 4  150. 

••     6  200. 

fodder,  with  ears 1  78.5 

without  ears 1  91.2 

Meadow  liay 4  143. 

•'    (.393) 6  137. 

"    best  (141) 6  146. 

'•    poor  (145) 6  138. 

^leadow    hay,    in    localities    with 

weak-boned    animals 4  140. 

Meadow    fescue  (Festiiva  prateii- 

sisj 1  88.9 

Meadow  foxtail  (Alopecurus  pra- 

tensi.i) 1  153.5 

Millet,  common 1  97.5 

Japanese 8  104.5 

"       different  species  (2) 6  150. 

*'             *'         5  150 


41.6 

11.9 

4. 

15.7 

82.3 

21. 

5.9 

18.1 

50.8 

29.6 

6.7 

8.8 

45.3 

4.8 

3.8 

16.4 

47.9 

8.9 

3.5 

15.4 

49.1 

17.6 

5.4 

8.9 

37.4 

10.4 

2.9 

14. 

59.8 

15.6 

4.3 

16. 

64.6 

14.7 

4.1 

13.2 

71.4 

19.2 

4.8 

15.2 

53.6 

10.9 

3.4 

11. 

44.5 

14.4 

2.3 

12. 

80.8 

9.9 

4. 

21. 

52.4 

15.4 

4.4 

19.9 

12.8 

4.9 

16.9 

58. 

11.1 

4. 

12.2 

73.6 

7.3 

2.9 

4.8 

74. 

7.4 

••W8  //"//,   continufd. 

8*niple 
(No.  of  Analyses  Author- 

in  parentheses).  itjr.    Water.    Ash. 

MiUet  (Panicum    miliaceiim) J         97.5 

"      Japane8e 1       104. .5      58. 

MuHtard,  white,  beginning  to  full 

hloom  (7) 6       150.         74.5 

Oats,  in  bloom(6) G       115.         61.1 

Orchard    grass  f Dactylia    glome- 

rata)    (10) 1         99.         ««. 

Orchard    grass  (Dactylis    gJome- 

rata) 1         88.4       (14.2 

Orchard    gra.ss  (Dactylis    glome- 

rata) 4       143.         50.8 

Orchard    grass  (Dactylia    glome- 

ra^a;,  cut  in  bloom  (11) 6       143.         64.3 

Ox-eye     daisy     ( Chrynanthemum 

Leucanthetnum) 1         96.5      63.7 

Pea     (Lathynts      sylvestrisj     in 

bloom  (10)  «       172.         60.8 

Pea,  green 4       167.        62.4 

cow,  whole  plant  (8)*. 1       107.         75. 

1       109.5      84. 

"     (8) 1       107.         75. 

"      ( Lathy nis  sylvestris)  (3)  ...  0       150.         51.1 

5       140.         48. 

Perennial      rye      grass      (Lolium 

perenne)   1         91.3       67.9 

Perennial      rye      grass     (Lolium 

perenne)   4       143.         58.2 

Perennial     rye      grass      (Lolium 

pereune),  c\xt  in  hXooxa  (11)..   «       132.5     100.2 
Perennial      rye      grass     (Lolium 

perenne)  cut  in  bloom 5       143.         65. 

Poa  maritima 4       150.        57.9 

\iKA-tUf(Agrosti8VHlgari»)  (9)..    1         89.         52. 

"  ••  '*  1         77.1       45.9 

Red-top    (Agrostis   vulgaris)  cut 

in  bloom  (3) 1        87.        49. 

Rowen  of  mixed  grasses 1       185.2       95.7 

Sainfoin   (Onobrychit   sativa),  in 

bloom 1       121.7       75.5 

Sainfoin    (Onobrychit  sativa),  in 

bloom 4       167.         45.8 


Nitre- 
can. 

PhM- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

12.8 

4.9 

16.9 

11.1 

4. 

12.2 

17.7 

8.1 

13.6 

11.9 

6.7 

25.4 

13. 

13.1 

4.1 

18.8 

3.6 

16.7 

13.1 

3.7 

16.9 

2.8 

4.4 

12.5 

.33. 1 

5.1 

16.9 

22.9 

6.8 

23.2 

26.6 

19.5 

5.2 

14.7 

26.6 

19.4 

2.7 

6.3 

19.2 

12.3 

5.6 

15.5 

1H.3 

6.2 

20.2 

17.7 

7.4 

24.1 

16.3 

2.6 

6.6 

12.6 

11.5 

3.6 

10.2 

12.8 

16.1 

4.3 

14.9 

26.3 

7.6 

20.2 

22.1 

4.6 

13. 

Uoff,   rnniinueiL  380 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author- 
in  parentheses),  ity.  Water.     .Ash. 
Sainfoin   ( OnobrycJiis  xativaj,  in  * 

bloom 2  149.         58. 

Sainfoin  (Onobrychis  sativaj,   in 

bloom  (29) 6  1.5.5.         .52.4 

Sainfoin  (Onohrychis  sativaj,  be- 
ginning of  bloom  (6) 6  157.5      ti7. 

Sainfoin  fOnobrychis  saliva),  be- 
ginning of  bloom 5  158.         67. 

Sainfoin  fOnobrychis  sativaj,  in 

bloom 5  167.         62. 

Salt  marsh  hay 8        515.6 

SeTr&del\a.fOniithopussativusJ..   1         73.9     106. 

"  "  "  ..   4  167.         81.6 

"         ..  2  150.         72. 
Serradella   (Ornithopns    sativus) 

beginning  to  end  of  bloom  (9)  6  160.         67.1! 
Serradella    (Oniithopus    satiriis) 

in  bloom 5  160.         81. 

Serradella  fOrnithopus  safirus)..  1         73.9     106. 

"       (1)  6  150.         54.9 

Setaria  Gerraanica  (23) G  124.         58.5 

Scotch  tares 1  158. 

fipurry  fSpergula  a rveusis)  (9)..  G  1.50.         91. 
Sedge,    creek    (Spartitia    stricta, 

xar.  glabra)    (5) 1         83.       107.         10.6 

Tall  meadow  oat-grass  ( Arrhena- 

therum  avevaceuni ) 1  153.5       49.2 

Teosinte  (Euchlcena  jKxurians) . .    1         60.6       65.3 

Timothy  fPhleum  pratense)  {6S).   1  132.        44. 

1         75.2       49.3 

(69).   G  143.         41.1 
Timothy    (Phleum   pratense),  viit 

in  full  bloom  (12) 1  150.         45. 

Timothy    (Phleutn   pratense),  cut 

soon  after  bloom  (11) 1  142.        44. 

Timothy    (Pkleum  pratense)   cut 

when  nearly  ripe  (12) 1  141.         39. 

V^titch,    kidney  (Anthyllis   vuJne- 

raria)  in  bloom 4  167.         53.2 


Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

21.2 

4.6 

13.2 

24.6 

5. 

14.7 

24.6 

21.3 

11.8 

2.5 

7.2 

27. 

7.8 

6.5 

21.6 

9.1 

31.9 

24.3 

24.7 

7.4 

26.3 

25.9 

27. 

7.8 

6.5 

20.7 

4.2 

12.7 

13.9 

3.6 

22.2 

29.6 

8.2 

30. 

16.4 

8.7 

21.2 

11.6 

3.2 

17.2 

14.6 

5.5 

37. 

9.4 

12.6 

5.3 

9. 

10. 

5. 

14.1 

8.4 

9.1 

». 

22  1 

4.7 

U.5 

390  Hati,   roHcluihd. 

Sanipip  Phot- 

(No.  of  analyKes  Author-  Xitro-    phoric     Pot- 

in  parentheses).  ity.    Water.    Ash.      gen.        acid.       a«h. 

Vetch,    kidney  {AvthyUix    vulne- 

roriVj)  in  bloom 2       151.         60.         13. ."i 

Vetch,    kidney  (Anthyllis    viilne- 

rnrtVi)  in  bloom  (12) fi       IGO.         55.9       15.  4.5       12. 

Vetch  (  I'lViVi    Cracen),  beginning 

to  end  of  bloom  (5) fi       165.         43.2      27.7        4.6       14.6 

Vetch  {Vicid   r'r«rrrt  ),  beginning 

of  bloom 5       156.         58.        37. 

Vetch  (  I'irid  ^'mrrrt ),  in  bloom..  5       165.         43.         29.7 
Vetch     (  I'lViVf     dHHietorium),    in 

bloom  (1) (i       160.         52.         33.8        5.5       17.6 

Vetch  {I'ieia   xfpium),  in    bloom 

(1) C       167.         61.         .{0.7         6.4       20.4 

Vetch  (ficia    natini),    in    bloom 

(7) <i       167.         87.         27.9         7..T       2.'i.3 

Vetch    {I'iria    rUloxo),   in    bloom 

(2) 6       160.         84.1       36.8         9.7      24.4 

X.  Leaves,  etc.,  of  Vegetables- 
Artichoke,    JcruMil.in      (Hcliau-  Lbs,  in  1.000. 

thuH  iuhensuit) 4  >iOO.  14.5  5.3  .7  3.1 

Artichoke.     .Terusnlcm      (Helio»- 

thus  tuberosus)  (i) C.  .■>5:{.2  71.5  5.5  2.8  11.7 

Beet,  common 4  905.  14.6  ;i.  1.  4.5 

•'        (19) i>  890.  19.9  3.8  .9  5.1 

"      sugar 4  897.  15.3  3.  .7  4. 

"     (8) 6  880.  23.9  4.1  1.5  6.2 

Cabbage  [Brassica  Xapiis  rapif- 

era) 4  884.  19.6  3.4  2.  2.8 

Cabbage  {Brassica  yapus   rapif- 

frn)  (l) 6  870.  16.9  4..'5  1.6  2.2 

Cabbage  (Brassica    oleracea  pro- 

cera)  (~) <!  856.3  14.1  4.2  2.2  5.2 

Cabbage 4  890.  15.6  2.4  1.4  5.8 

stems 8  820.  11.6  1.8  2.4  5.1 

Carrot 4  822.  23.9  5.1  1.  2.9 

•'      at  root  harvest  (4) 6  818.  42.6  5.5  1.1  2.7 

Chicory  4  850.  16.5  3.5  1.  4.3 

Corn,  cobs 1  801.  5.9  2.1  .5  2.2 


Leaven,  etc.,  of  Vegetables,  concluded.  391 

Sample 

CN'o.  of  analyses                     Author-  Nitre- 

in  parentheses).                         ity.  Water.  Ash.  gen. 

Corn,  husk.s 1  861.9        5.6  1.8 

••      stalks 1  808.6  12.5  2.8 

Mangel-wurzel 8  905.  14.1  .3. 

^Parsnip,  in  May  (1) 6  831.5  25.9  2.9 

Potato,  .shortly  before  harvest. . ..  4  770.  19.7  4.9 

"            "             "             "       (3).  6  770.  31.3  4. 

July  and  August 4  825.  16.5  6.3 

"       "           •'       (6) 6  850.  15.5  5.7 

Sweet  potato 1  800.6  24.5  4.2 

Rhubarb,  roots 1  743.5  22.8  5.5 

Succory 8  850.  16.5  3.5 

Tomato  vines 1       733.1  117.2  2.4 

"            "     1  836.1  30.  3.2 

Turnip 4  898.  11.9  3. 

XI.   Mill  Products—  Lbs.  in  1,000. 


Phos- 
phoric, 
acid. 

Pot 
ash 

.7 

2.2 

1.4 

4.1 

.8 

4.1 

.8 

2.5 

1.6 

4.3 

1.8 

4.6 

1.2 

4.4 

1.2 

3.8 

.7 

7.3 

.6 

5.3 

1. 

4.3 

.6 

2.9 

.7 

5. 

.9 

2.8 

Apple    poiuace 1  805.  2.7        2.3 

(5) 6  740.  8.2         2.6 

"       dried  (1) : . . . .   6  100.  28.1         8.8 

Barley,  flour 4  140.  20.  16. 

bran 4  120.  49.5  17.6 

"    (21) G  123.  70.  16.5 

middlings 4  130.  21.1 

(16) 6  132.  28.5  20.2 

ground 1  134.3  20.6  15.5 

Beer 8  900.  6.2 

Beech-nut   cake,    uushelled    nuts 

(24) 6  151.  47.2  29.9 

Beech-nut  cake,  shelled  nuts  (5).  6  104.5  70.5  58.2 

Brewers'  grains,  dry 1  91.4  39.2  36.2 

"  "  "   (166) 6  95.  47.2  33. 

"       wet 1  750.1  8.9 

"  "  "    4  766.  10.6        7.8 

"  "    (158) 6  762.2  12.4        8.1 

Buckwheat  bran,  coarse  (5) 6  156.  28.  12.8 

••      fine  (9) 6  120.  70.  24.3 

•■     4  140.  29.8  27.2 

'•  middlings,  coarse    (6)  6  120.  47.  50.8 

"  "  fine  (9)...   6  147.  14.  13.8 


.2 

1.3 

.1 

.3 

3.6 

.9 

9.5 

5.8 

9.1 

8.3 

10.5 

9.2 

10.8 

•   5.5 

17.4 

6.9 

6.6 

3.4 

2. 

2.1 

10. 

6.8 

14.3 

10. 

10.3 

.9 

16.1 

2. 

3.1 

.5 

3.9 

.4 

4.2 

.5 

4.2 

12.7 

13.2 

15.8 

10.7 

9.7 

12.3 

11.4 

6.8 

3.4 

392 


Mill    Products,  continued. 


Sample 
(No.  of  analysM  Author- 

in  parenthesea).  Ity.    Wat«r. 

Buckwheat,  hulls 1       119. 

"     (2) 6       132. 

"     5       132. 

Brassica  rapa  oleifera  (35) 6      107.2 

Cacao  cake  (5) 6       100. 

"         "     (20) 6        90. 

"     4         77. 

Cocoa  cake  or  meal 4       127. 

"     "      "     (73) 6       103.5 

Corn,  cobs 1       120.9 

"      meal 1       129.5 

"      4       140. 

"      and  cob  meal 1         89.0 

"      middlings,  coarse  (15) 6       1.30. 

"  "  fine  (21) 6       152. 

"      sprouts  cake  (232) 6      114.3 

Cotton-seed  cake,  from  unshelled 

seed   (46) 6 

Cotton-seed    cake,    from    shelled 

seed  (84) fi 

Cotton-seed  cake 4 

hulls  (4) 1 

"       1 

"      6 

meal I 

••'     (142) 6 

Grape  pomace,  fresh  (2) fi 

"  "         fermented  (4)....  6 

Gluten  meal 1 

Hemp-seed  cake    (33) 6 

Hominy  feed 1 

Hops,  after  brewing  (5) 6 

"       spent 7 

Lentil,  middlings  (1) 6 

Linseed  cake 4 


"    (900).. 
meal,  o.  p. 

••       n.  p. 


86.5 
112. 
104. 
106.:t 
133. 

99. 

88.2 
7.50. 
675. 

85.9 
120. 

89.3 

109.4 

755. 

134. 

122. 

110. 

88.8 

90 


Ash. 

22.3 

22. 

77.3 

81.3 

88.5 

78.5 

53.3 

60.2 

8.2 
14.1 

.5.9 

19.4 

14. 

19.2 


Nitro- 
gen. 
4.9 
7.3 
7.4 
52.3 
.30. 
72.1 
84.5 
37.4 
.32.8 
5. 

15.8 
16. 
14.1 
13.6 
15.1 
26.5 


Phon- 
phorir 
acid. 


4.3 

20. 

.32. 

43.3 

40.1 

13. 

16. 

.6 
6.3 


4.4 

3. 


70.4 

(i6.4 

26. 

26. 1 

27. 

68.2 

70.5 

4.1 
1,5.6 

7.3 
79.7 
22.1 
64. 

24. 

51.3 

65.5 

60.8 

60.3 

.53.7 

ti2.1 


70.6 

r.2.1 

6.4 

7. .5 

6.2 

66.4 

69. 

9. 

7.2 

.50.3 

49. 

16.3 

24.5 

10.8 

41.3 

47.2 

45.8 

54.3 

.52.1 

57.8 

.->6.4 


.32.5 
.30.5 

1.8 

4.3 

26.8 

30.4 


3.3 
25.2 

9.8 
10.8 

3.2 

6.5 
16.2 
16.2 
16.6 
16.2 
18.3 
17.4 


Pot 

ash. 

5.2 

14.7 

13. 

26. 

19. 

17.5 

19.6 

24. 
6. 
4. 
1.7 
4.7 
2.6 
1.7 
5. 


118.6       63.8       .38.8       25.8       16.1 


15.8 
15.8 

10.8 
10.4 
17.9 
1.5.8 
o 

7.8 
..5 
14. 

4.9 

4.6 

4. 

7.8 
12.5 
12.5 
13.7 
12.5 
13.9 
13.4 


N'itro- 
10.7 

Ph08- 

lihoric 

afid. 

2.6 

Pot- 
ash. 
5.5 

10.4 

5.3 

2.5 

If). 

9.3 

4.4 

1().2 

4.2 

8.8 

35.5 

14.3 

16.3 

.%.8 

18.2 

20.8 

:!7. 

17.4 

19.9 

4G. 

16.2 

18.S 

46.6 

16.2 

IS. 7 

.•?.5 

1.9 

1.3 

45.9 

40.9 

27. 

2.7 

1.8 

1.2 

.'i7. 

33.5 

22.4 

3.2 

19.5 

12.2 

37.1 

20.4 

12.7 

1.6 

1.3 

3. 

1.8 

1.1 

2.4 

.■{3.2 

19.7 

4S.I 

Mill    Products,  rontinued.  393 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author- 
in  parentheses).                          ity.  Water.  .\sli. 

Malt,  green,  barley    (4) 6  453.5  21. 

"           "            "         4  475.  14.6 

'•       dry,  barley 4         75.  25.6 

"        "           "      (5) 6  120.  28.5 

"       .sprouts,   barley 1  183.8  124.8 

"       4         80.  67.6 

"      (128) 6  120.  75.1 

"             "          wheat  (3i 6  145.  64. 

"             "         corn  (3) 6  1.50.  63. 

Mash,  wheat,  fres^i  (2 i 6  890.5  4.2 

"             "      dry  (1) (i  120.  87. 

"       rye,  fresh  (20) 6  922.  4.1 

"     dry  (23 6  106.  73. 

"       corn,  fresli  (8> 6  913.2  4.6 

"           "      dry  f5) 6         94.  44.2 

"       potato,  fresli 4  930.  6.6 

•■      (33) 6  943.  C.7 

dry   Cii 6  126.3  147.8 

Middlings,    inixc(l.     best    ((uality 

(22) 6  128.  33.         22.6       12.2         9.6 

Middlings,  mixed,  poorer  fiualitv 

(22) ".  6  125.  .56. 

Millet,  bran  (5) 6  106.  115. 

"       middlings  (3) 0  111.  49. 

Molasses  slump 8  920.  14. 

Oats,    ground 1  111.7  ,33.7 

"       bran  (4) 6  110.  82.8 

middlings,  coarse  (6) (>  100.  62. 

fine  (6) 6  100.  52. 

Oat  hulls 8  140.  34.7 

Olive  cake 4  138.  27.8 

Palm-nut  cake 4  100.  26.1 

••     (600) (i  104.2  42.5 

Pea  bran 8  140.  22.7 

■'    meal 1         88.5  26.8 

"    hulls  (59) 6  125.  37. 

"    middlings    (7) 6  135  31. 

Peanut  cake,  whole  nut  (24) 6  111.5  62.2 

"      shelled  nut  (2480;..   6  10(>.(!  48.7 

"      4  104.  39.7 


oof; 

26.3 

15.3 

7. 

15.2 

12.5 

18.6 

21.1 

8.9 

3.2 

.1 

11. 

18.6 

7.7 

5.9 

13.4 

2.2 

7.1 

18.7 

22.5 

15.3 

26. 1 

27. 

15.3 

1.6 

4.9 

9.6 

2.5 

7.9 

25.9 

11. 

5. 

26.9 

11. 
3.1 

5. 
10.3 

30.8 

8.2 

9.9 

22.4 

8.8 

10. 

37.4 

6.5 

7.8 

49.1 

15. 

18. 

76.2 

20. 

15. 

75.6 

13.1 

15. 

394                      Mill    Produds,  continued. 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyMs                      Author- 
in  parentheses).                           ity.  Water.  Ash. 

I'oppy  s..«.<l  rake  (190) 6  114.2  112.1 

"       4  115.  77.4 

Potato  slump 8  948.  5. 

Rape  cake 4  113.  .57. 

•'     (500) 6  100.  79.4 

Rice  bran 1  102.  129.4 

"       "     (7) 6  102.  129.4 

"    niiddlin^'H 4  100.  .')4.7 

•'    polish I  lO.'J.  90. 

"      (187) 0  I0«).  92. 

Ky.'  flour 1  142. 

"     4  142.  16.it 

"     'l)ran 1  \i:<.  46. 

"     4  12:>.  71.9 

"     (2:}0) 6  125.  46. 

niiflfllings 1  125.4  35.2 

(20) 6  125.  .30. 

St'sniiie  riikt'   ( l.')0) (i  98.2  107..'> 

4  111.  93.8 

Soja  hfan  cake  (.")) 6  12.").!)  .53.5 

Supar  l)f>f't,  clarifying  refu.se 8  948.  3.3 

•'       inolas.ses  (35) 6  207. .5  106.2 

4  172.  82.6 

Sugar     beet    diffusion     cuttings, 

after  use,  fre.sh   (20) 6  9.{0.  8.3         1.             .3          .64 

Sugar    beet    diffusion      cuttings, 

after  use,  pressed  (16) 0  897.7  .'i.8         1.4            .2           .4 

Sugar    beet     diffusion     cuttings, 

after  use,  soured  (35) 6  885.2  10. ;»         l.S           .4           .6 

Supar     beet      diffusion     cuttings. 

after  use,  dried  (12) 6  105..'!  W.I 

.•Sunflower  seed  cake  (.58) 6  92.4  66.8 

•'       4  103.  49.7 

Starch  feed,  glucose  refuse I  81. 

Walnut  cake  (4) 6  113.7  50.7 

"      4  137.  46.2 

Wheat    flour 1  98.3  12.2 

"     4  120.  11.2 

bran 1  117.4  62.5 

••    coarse  (93i li  1.32.  .">8. 


Nitro- 
Ken. 

Phos- 
phoric 
arid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

.58.2 

31.7 

23. 

51. 

31.7 

23. 

1.6 

1. 

2.2 

.50.5 

20. 

13. 

49.6 

20. 

13. 

7.1 

2.9 

2.4 

7.1 

2.9 

2.4 

19.1 

23.8 

6.1 

19.7 

26.7 

7.1 

17.8 

27.7 

7.6 

16.8 

8.5 

6.5 

16.8 

8.2 

6.5 

23.2 

22.8 

14. 

23.2 

.34.4 

19.4 

23.2 

22.8 

14. 

18.4 

12.6 

8.1 

23.2 

12.3 

9.6 

60. 

32.7 

14.5 

58.6 

.32.7 

14.5 

645.2 

22. 

18. 

.8 

O 

.3 

14.6 

.5 

.56.. 't 

12.8 

..5 

.58.7 

12.. 5 

''."' 

3.1 

.5  5.. 5 

21. .5 

11.7 

.59  7 

21.5 

11.7 

26.2 

2.9 

1.5 

49.1 

20.2 

15.3 

55.3 

20.2 

15.3 

22.1 

5.7 

5.4 

21.6 

5.6 

.3.5 

26.7 

28.0 

16.1 

22.6 

26.9 

15.2 

Mill    Products,  concluded. 

Sample 

CNo.  of  analyses                       Authoi'-  \itro- 

in  parentheses).                          ity.  Water.  Ash.-  gen. 

Wheat  bran,  fine  (40) 6  1.T2.  46.  24.8 

•'      middlings    1  91.8  23.  26.3 

(24) 6  126.  27.  22.8 

XII.  Roots  and  Tubers—           Lbs,  in  1,000 

Artichoke,  Jenisalem 4  800.  9.8  3.2 

"                  ••          (.33) (i  800.  11.2  2.0 

Canaigre 8  667.  13.7  6.2 

Beet,   common 4  880.  9.1  1.8 

"        (318) 6  880.  10.7  2. 

•'       red   1  877.3  11.3  2.4 

yellow  fodder 1  906.  9.5  1 .9 

Carrot 1  897.9  9.2  1 .5 

"       4  8.>0.  8.2  2.2 

"      (63) 6  870.  10.  2. 

Chicory 4  800.  6.7  2. .5 

Kohlriibe    {Brassica  napus    esar- 

lenta) 4  870.  7.5  2.1 

Kohlriibe   Brassica    napus    estn- 

lexta)  {\W) 6  878.  9.2  2.4 

Mangel-wurzel 1  872.9  12.2  1.9 

Parsnip   (3) 6  832.  10.  1.8 

1  803.4  10.3  2.2 

4  793.  10.  5.4 

Potato 1  797.5  9.9  2.1 

•'      4  7.50.  9.5  3.4 

•'     with  25 '^  dry  matter  (197).   6  750.  11.  3.4 

"    21%     "         "        (53)..   6  790.  9.3  3.1 

'•    20%     "         ••'        (107).   6  :  740.  11.2  3.3 

"    32%     "         '•        (13)..  0  680.  11.  4. 

Ruta-bagas 1  891.:'.  10.6  1.9 

Succory 8  800.  6.7  2.5 

Sugar  beet 1  869.5  10.4  2.2 

"         "     4  815.  7.1  1.6 

"    (68) 6  820.  8.1  2.1 

•'         •'    upper  part  of  root 4  840.  9.6  2. 

Turnip.s 1  894.9  10.1  1.8 

4  920.  6.4  1.8 

(52) 6  907  8  8.  1.9 


39.') 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot. 
ash. 

26. 

13.9 

9.5 

6.3 

13.5 

7.4 

1.4 

4.7 

1.4 

4.7 

1.8 

5.6 

.8 

4.8 

.8 

4.8 

.9 

4.4 

.9 

4.6 

.9 

5.1 

1.1 

3. 

.9 

2.6 

.8 

2.6 

1.1 

3.5 

1. 

3.. "5 

.0 

3.8 

••) 

4.4 

1.9 

0.2 

1.9 

5.4 

- 

2.9 

l.r, 

5.8 

1.6 

5.7 

1.3 

4.8 

1.7 

5.9 

2_ 

7.3 

1.2 

4.9 

.8 

2.6 

1. 

4.8 

.9 

3.8 

.8 

3.7 

1.2 

2.8 

1. 

3.9 

.8 

2.9 

<J 

3.4 

;{1)6  Steds    and    Seed-likf    Fruits. 

XIII.  Seeds  and  Seed-like  Fruits—       Lba.  in  i.ooo. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot 

Mh. 

1.6 

7. 

1.5 

6..-? 

2.1 

9.1 

2.7 

11.9 

2.6 

9.3 

3.4 

12.8 

Sample 

(No.  of  analyses                      Anther-  Nitro- 

ill  parentheses).                         ity.  Water.  Ash.  gen. 

Acorns,  un.shelled.  fresh  (12) 6  .500.  11.7  .5.4 

4  5.53.  9.8  4. 

Acorns,  iiiishelled,  partially  dried 

(12) 6  :J,50.  15.3  6.9 

Acorns,  unshelled,  dried  (12) 6  150.  20.  9. 

"         .«thelled,  fresh  (8) 6  350.  19.5  7.9 

dried  (8) 6  1.50.  25.5  10.4 

Barley   (10) 1  109.  24.  19.8 

"        1  149.  17.6        8.2         5.4 

2  1.38.  22.  17.9 

(1128) fi  143.  24.8  15.1 

spring 4  143.  22.3  16. 

winter 4  145.  17.  16. 

Bean,  field 4  14.5.  31.  40.8 

♦'     2  141.  31.  40.2 

"     (87) fi  143.  31.8  40.7 

"       garden 4  1.50.  27.4  .39. 

"       (26) «  140.  .36.  .36.4 

•'       soja  (8) 1  108.  47.  54.4 

"      1  183.3  49.9  53. 

"      4  100.  28.3  53.4 

"      yellow  (23) 6  100.  .51.3  52.9 

'•      brown    (11) 6  100.  48.5  52.2 

'•      black    (5) 6  112.  47.3  .54.4 

'•      mixed  (58) ti  100.  48.  55.1 

Beech.     European     {Fntfux     syl- 

vntica) 4  1.50.  27.  23.5         6.3         8.3 

Beech,     European      (Fagust      xyl- 

vatira)   {2) ti  111.  41.8  21.3         4.7         .5.2 

Beet,  mangel  (flf^a  fM/j7n>i.>f) 4  140.  48.8  7.6        9.1 

"           "               "           ••           nil.  i;  139.  69.4  19. 1          7.6         9. 

Buckwheat  (8) 1  126.  20.  16. 

"            1  141.  14.4         4.4         2.1 

4  140.  II. h  14.4         ,5.7         2.7 

2  131.  18.  16.2 

(20) 6  141.  27.7  18.1 

Caraway  (Ca rum   Carui) 4  130.  46.4 

Carrot  ( Pnwux  Cnrotn) 4  120.  74.8 


7.9 

4.8 

7.8 

4.7 

5.6 

2.8 

12.1 

12.9 

12. 

12.9 

9.7 

12.1 

9.8 

12.2 

18.7 

19.9 

10.4 

12.6 

10.4 

12.6 

10.4 

12.6 

10.2 

12.4 

10.4 

12.6 

6.9 

3. 

11.3 

12.2 

11.8 

14.3 

Sff'ds,    rfc,    r(nitiniif(L 


Sample 
(No.  of  annlysps 
in  parentlipspsi. 

Castor  pomace 

Chestnut,  horse,  common  {^seu- 
lus      JJippocastamim)      dried 

and  shelled  (10) f; 

Chestnut,    horse    (ufJsculus    Hi/i- 

povagtanum)   fresh 4 

Chicory  (C(c/ioriio«  Intyhus)....  4 

Clover,  red 4 

'■         white 4 

Cocoa-nut 4 

Coriander  {Coricnidntm    sativutn)  4 

Cotton 8 

Fennel  {FveniculiiM  officinale) .. .  4 
Flax,  false  {Camelina  xativa)  (5)  IJ 

Grape 8 

Hemp  {Cannabis  sativa) 4 


Author- 
ity.   Wat«r. 

7.04 


Id.-) 


Ash. 


Nitro- 
gen 

f.. 


ii.r. 


Phot- 

phorip 
«pi(l. 

i.o.-. 


4.7 


397 


Pot- 
ash. 


•••      (5) « 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  (Lens 

esculenta)  2 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  {Leng 


w.\. 

12. 

6.9 

2.7 

7.1 

130. 

.54.6 

16.5 

(j.r. 

150. 

38.3 

30.5 

14.5 

13.5 

150. 

33.8 

11.6 

12.3 

466. 

9.7 

8.8 

1.7 

4.3 

135. 

41.2 

7.6 

14.5 

77. 

33.8 

36.5 

10.5 

10.9 

i;}4. 

61.4 

10.1 

19.6 

7/ . 

74.4 

38.3 

20.3 

3.5 

110. 

22.7 

19. 

7. 

6.9 

122. 

46.3 

26.1 

16.9 

9.4 

122. 

45. 

26.1 

89. 

42.4 

29.2 

17.5 

9.7 

125. 


38.1 


esculenta)  (14) 

6 

140. 

29.8 

40.7 

7.7 

8.6 

Linseed  (Limim  usitatissimum). . 

4 

118. 

32.6 

32.8 

13.5 

10. 

•' 

2 

118. 

34. 

34.7 

(50) 

0 

92. 

43. 

36.1 

13.9 

10.3 

Lupine  (Lnpinus  luteus)  yellow.. 

2 

128. 

35. 

56.6 

-  (41) 

6 

140. 

38.1 

61.2 

14.1 

11.3 

(L.  anffustifolUis)  blue... 

2 

150. 

32. 

44.8 

'• 

"    (13) 

6 

140. 

29. 

47.2 

13.8 

11.2 

{L.  albus)  white  (10) 

6 

140. 

30.4 

47.3 

13.8 

11.2 

{L.  hirstthis)  (5) 

6 

140. 

27.3 

40.8 

12.9 

10.3 

4 

130. 

37. 

56.6 

14.2 

11.4 

•• 

minus  alkaloid 

6 

325. 

11. 

50.7 

5.1 

4.1 

Madia 

sativa  (4) 

6 

75. 

42.7 

31. 

17.6 

9.3 

11 

11 

5 

1 

84. 
106. 

47. 
15. 

33. 
16.4 

Maice 

(Indian  com),  dent  (86y . . . 

" 

"     (149)... 

i; 

130. 

14.8 

16. 

5.7 

3.7 

" 

"      flint  (68).... 

1 

113. 

14. 

16.8 

" 

(80).... 

6 

130. 

14. 

16.4 

5.7 

3.7 

" 

'•          •'      sweet  (26)... 

1 

88. 

19. 

18.6 

t( 

•      (27)... 

6 

130. 

18.2 

18.4 

5.7 

3.7 

398  Sre^Ls.    rff.,    rttiltin iiitl . 

Sample                                                                                   Pho»- 
(No.  of  analyses                      Author                             Nitre-    phoric      Pot- 
in  parentheses).                         Ity     Water  Ash.      gen.        acid.       ash. 

Maixe  (Indiau  corn),  pop  (4; 1  107.  1.').         17.9 

Maize    (Indian   com),    dent,  field 

cured    (17) 1  M'l.  !».         10. 

Maize    (Indian   com),    flint,   field 

cured  (48) 1  271.  V.i. 

Maize  (208) 1  109.  15. 

1  108.8  15.3 

4  144.  12.4 

5  127.  17. 

(300). 6  130.  i:t. 

Millet,    commou   (Paiiinim    mili- 

actum) 1  126.8 

Millet,    common    {Panicum    mili- 

aceuHi) 4  140.  29.."> 

•Millet,    common    {Pavirinn    ttiiU- 

ticeuui) L'  I.!.").  :t(). 

Millet,    common    (PanU-um    Mili- 

aceiim)  (6) li  iL'.'i.  :f8.2 

-Millet,  Japanese  (Setaria  Ifalira 

vars.) 1  i:i(i.h 

Millet  (AV/«/-i«   Italica) 2  124.  S.i. 

Mustard 4  VAO.  ;i(i.."> 

Mustard,  black   {Brasxira    nigm) 

(11) »i  6:!.  .^)0.2 

Mustard,  white  (5.  «/6«)  (6) (i  72.  43.G 

Oats  CiO) 1  110.  30. 

'•      1  181.7  29.8 

••      4  143.  2«.7 

••      2  137.  27. 

••     (500) 6  133.  31. 

••     hulled  (180) ti  120.  20.3 

Veti  (Lathy rus  xativiix)  (\\ (I  140.  27.8 

2  IIG.  29. 

Peas   4  143.  23.4 

"       2  1.12.  24. 

••      (118)    ti  140.  28.1 

••      <-..w  (.-)) 1  148.  32. 

I'oppy.    iipium    {Papaver  somnif- 

eriiin  I 4  147.  51.0        28. 


12.8 

16.8 

18.2 

7. 

4. 

16. 

5.7 

3.7 

17. 

15.8 

5.7 

3.7 

20.4 

8.5 

3.t 

20.3 

6.5 

3.:! 

20.3 

17. 

.'1.9 

3  4 

17.3 

6.9 

3.8 

16. 

14.6 

5.9 

44.1 

15.7 

6.4 

43..^) 

15.6 

6..! 

18.8 

20.6 

8.2 

6.2 

17.6 

6.8 

4.U 

19.2 

16.5 

6.9 

4.8 

21.6 

8.8 

5.1 

38. 

4.7 

9.7 

40. 

.•15.8 

8.4 

10.1 

35.8 

36. 

8.4 

10.1 

33.3 

Sfeds,   fir.,   ro/ttinnf^d .  390 

Sampl«  Pbos- 

(Xo.  of  analyses  Author-  Nitre-    phorio     Pot- 

in  parentheses),  ity.    Water.     Ash.       gen.        acid..       asli. 

Poppy,    opium  {Papaver  somnif- 

erum)   (9) 6 

Peanut  {Arachis  hypogaa)  (9)...  6 

"  "  "  4 

Rape      (Brassica      Napus    oltif- 

era   DC.) 4 

Rape      (Brassica      ^\ipits     oleif- 

era  DC.)  (22) f, 

Rape      (Brassica      Rapa      ohif- 

era  DC.)   (13) (I 

Rape       (Brassica     Sapa      oleif 

era  DC.)  short  sea.son  var. ...  4 
Rape     (Raphauus    salirus    oleij- 

erus)    (2) C 

Rice   (10) 1 

1 

(41) <; 

not  hulled 2 

Rutabaga b 

Rye  (fi) 1 

1 

(257)  (i 

spring 4 

winter 4 

Sainfoin,    esparsette  (Onobrychia 

sativa) 4 

Serradella  (Or«///(o/>M.s  sativiis)..  4 

1 .  . .  . .  •> 

(7)  G 

Sesame  (Sesumuui  orientate)  (12)  0 

Sorghum  (10) 1 

1 

4 

saccharatum  (38) tJ 

Tataricum   (6) 0 

\'ulgai:e  (12) C 

saccharatum   Pers 4 

Spelt 2 


81. 

72.3 

31.2 

17.5 

7.. 5 

70. 

28.3 

47.5 

10. 

8. 

63. 

32. 

45.1 

12.4 

12.7 

118. 

.•(9.2 

:!i.2 

16.6 

9.6 

7:'.. 

4-_'.I 

111. 7 

17.4 

10.1 

7.V 

:fh.i 

!!■_'.  8 

15.7 

9.2 

120. 

:u.9 

:i6.8 

14.9 

7.7 

77. 

:!5.7 

.34. 

14.6 

9.2 

124. 

4. 

11.8 

126. 

8.2 

10.8 

1.8 

.9 

132. 

7_ 

13.8 

126. 

8.2 

10.8 

1.8 

.9 

85. 

4. 

8. 

140. 

48.8 

7.6 

9.1 

116. 

19. 

16.9 

149. 

17.6 

8.2 

5.4 

143. 

18. 

18.2 

134. 

19.8 

18.3 

8.6 

5.8 

143. 

18. 

9.2 

6.2 

]4;!. 

17.9 

17. (; 

8.5 

5.8 

160. 

38.4 

9.2 

11. 

120. 

28.4 

34.9 

7.^ 

8.2 

87. 

34. 

:i5.2 

140. 

31. 

34.3 

7.7 

8. 

55. 

64.7 

.32.5 

17. 

8. 

128. 

21. 

14.6 

140. 

14.8 

8.1 

4.2 

140. 

Itl. 

8.1 

3.3 

152. 

17.1 

14.8 

8.1 

3.2 

111. 

24.2 

15.3 

6. 

3.6 

114.6 

19.5 

14.3 

8.4 

:i.4 

140. 

2:i.4 

5.8 

3.5 

121. 

3U. 

17.6 

4(X) 


Sirtls,   til-.,   ronrJmJt'iJ. 


KampU 
(No.  of  analyteo                      Author- 
in  par«iith«iieR).  il.v 
Spelt,  with  husk 4 

(11) 6 

•'      without  husk 4 

"     (6) 6 

Spurry  {Spergula   arvensis) 2 

"         (3)..  6 
SuaQower(Helianthusannuus)  ('>)  6 

Turnips  8 

Vetch,    kidney  {Anthyllia   vtilne- 

ra  ria  ) 4 

Vetch,  or  tare  (  Vicia  sativa) 4 


"        (13).  C 
Vetch,    Russian,  or    hairy  ( I'icia 

villog(i)    (4) C 

Walnut,  kernel 4 

Wheat  (1358) G 

•  i        2 

•'       hard-glassy  (239) 6 

•'       soft  (140) G 

.spring  (13) 1 

1 

4 

'•       (132) 6 

winter  (262) 1 

1 

"        4 

"       (788) 6 


Water. 
148. 
137. 
143. 
139. 
103. 
103. 
75. 
125. 

94. 
143. 
136. 
133. 

160. 

450. 

134. 

143. 

1.34. 

134. 

104. 

143..-. 

143. 

134. 

105. 

147.5 

144. 

134. 


AHh. 
36.  G 
23.4 
14.4 
18.4 
.34. 
34. 
34.4 
34.9 


Nitro- 
neu. 
16.G 
17.4 
22. 
22.2 
22.4 
22.4 
22.8 
34. 


36.8 

26.6  44. 

27.  44. 

32.3  40.6 


30.2 
11.7 

17.1 

17. 

17.9 

17.H 

19. 

15.7 

18.3 

19.4 

18. 

16.8 
18.2 


Phot 

phorlc 
aciii. 

7.6 

7.6 

6.5 


12.2 
14. 


13.6 
9.9 


37. 

19.3 

21.1 

20.2 

18.2 

20. 

23.6 

20.5 

21.2 

18.8 

23.6 

20.8 

18.7 


9.9 

9.G 

5.1 
8.7 

8.7 


9. 
9.1 

8.9 
7.9 
8. 


Pot- 
ash. 
5.7 
5.7 
4.3 
4.3 

:i.6 


12.1 


8.1 

8.4 
3.6 
5.5 


:t.9 

5.6 
5.6 

6.1 
5.2 
5.3 


XIV.   Straw- 
Barley  


I,l.<.   in   1.000. 


(101).. 
spring 
winter 


Bean,  field 4 


(9) 


114.4 

143. 

143. 

142. 

143. 

143. 

IGO. 

175. 

184. 


53. 

45.9 

44. 

57.4 

41. 
55. 


58. 


13.1 
6.4 
5.4 
5.5 
5.G 
5.3 


44.9        16.3 


15.8 


54.3       13. 


3. 
1.9 


20.9 
10.7 


10.6 


19.4 


18.; 


Sfriiu\   conflni4f<l.  401 

Sample  Phos- 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author-  Nitro-    phorie     Pot- 
in  parentlipses).                          ity.  Water.  Asli.  gen.        aoid.        ash. 

Bean,  field 5  160.  46.  16.8 

"       garden 4  160.  40.2  3.9       12.8 

"      iG) fi  liiO.  75.  13.9        ."{.9       Ui. 

r>  150.  62.  11.2 

sojii 1  130.  17.5        4.         13.2 

"    4  140.  32.7  13.1         3.1         5. 

•'    2  112.  12.4  12.0 

•'(10)   6  160.  101.8  11.8         2.9         4.8 

"    f)  150.  102.  10.7 

Clover,  prown  for  seed 2  155.  58.  14.7 

•'      "      5  160.  56.  15. 

red 6  155.  .38.  14.7         4.2       12.6 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  {Lens 

esciilenta) 2  150.  66.  22.4 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  {Lens 

eseuleuta)  {2) ()  l.")0.  68.4  22.2         2.7         6.3 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  {Lens 

esciileufn) 5  160.  65.  22.4 

Lupine  {L II pi >i us  I II tens) 4  160.  42.6  9.4         2.5       17.7 

2  126.  38.  8.8 

(14) 6  1.50.  39.5  10.6         2.5       17.9 

5  100.  41.  9.4 

Oats   (12) 1  92.  51.  6.4 

"      1  90.9  47.6  6.2         2.         12.4 

•      4  143.  61.6  5.6         2.8       16.3 

■•      2  143.  44.  6.4 

•■     (55) 0  145.  57.  4.6         2.8       17.7 

••      5  143.  40.  6.4 

Tea 4  160.  43.1  10.4         3.5         9.9 

■' 2  143.  49.  11.7 

■'(53) 6  136.  66.  14.3         3.5       10.2 

•'    5  160.  45.  10.4 


Poppy,    opium    (Pajmi-er  somnif- 

enim)  4       160.         48.6  1.6       lh.4 

Poppy,   opium    {Pa purer  somnif- 

erinn)   (2' 6       160.         87.3         9.7         1.6       1^.4 

Poppv,    opium  (Paparef    sownif- 

e'rum) 5       148.         94.         10.7 

linpo  (Brassiea  JVapiis  olei/era).  4       160.         41.3         5.6         2.5       11.3 
"  "  "         .2       160.         53.  5.6 


402 


ISiraw,  rotirluded. 


Sample 
(No.  of  analysex  Author 

in  parentheses).  iiy. 

Hrnpei  Bra  us  tea  Napus  oltifera)  (2)  6       160. 

"              "             "              "         . .   5 
Rice  (7) fi 


Kve  (7) 1 


(87) (i 

spring 4 

winter 4 


Spelt 2 

"     (2) (i 

winter 4 

Vetch,  Russian    or   hairy    ( Vicin 

villosa)  (3  f. 

Vetch,  Russian   or    hairy    ^  X'ivid 

villosa ) .'> 

Vetch  (  Vicia  sativa  ) 4 


I"). 


Wheat,  winter 4 


spring 4 

•'•     (7) 1 

"      I 


(80), 


XV.  Vegetables- 
Artichoke 4 

Asparagus 1 

4 

Beaniv,  Atlzuki 1 

"        Lima 1 

"       string 1 

Beets,   red 1 


kVal.r. 

Ash. 

Nltn.- 
iten. 

Pho»- 
phorlr 
arid. 

Pot- 
ash 

160. 

37. H 

4. 

2..-. 

;i.2 

160. 

41. 

.■».6 

132. 

103.3 

8.8 

2.6 

5  3 

1.56. 

l.-)3. 

9.1 

71. 

32. 

4.8 

76.1 

.32..'. 

4.6 

2.8 

7.9 

U.S. 

41. 

4.8 

i;«;. 

41..') 

4.!l 

2..'i 

S.6 

i4;i. 

46.7 

."l.li 

2.8 

11.7 

143. 
143. 

:i8.2 

41. 

4. 

4.8 

-••'• 

8.6 

143. 

52. 

3.7 

150. 

.■)8. 1 

4.3 

2.5 

5.2 

143. 

."lO.I 

4. 

2.6 

5.2 

143. 

.-)0. 

4. 

l.'.(l. 


11.3. 

4(N. 

!•.!• 

160. 

44.1 

12. 

2.7 

6.3 

143. 

liO. 

11.2 

133. 

.-|2.!t 

14.4 

2.7 

6.5 

160. 

45. 

12. 

143. 

46. 

4.8 

2.2 

l°>.:! 

143. 

46. 

4.8 

143. 

.38. 1 

5.6 

•) 

11. 

%. 

42. 

5.4 

125.6 

38.1 

5.9 

1.2 

5.1 

143. 

30. 

5. 

136. 

53. 
Lbs. 

6. 
in  I.IXK). 

2  ■' 

6.3 

811. 

10.1 

3.!t 

2.4 

039.6 

6.7 

2.H 

.8 

2.9 

933. 

5. 

3.2 

.9 

1.2 

158.6 

35. :i 

.12.  !i 

9.5 

13.3 

684.6 

I6.<t 

872.3 

7.6 

884.7 

ltt.4 

-.4 

.9 

4.4 

]'»t/i'((ihlfs,    roiirhitictl.  4().'5 

Sample  Phos- 

(No.  of  analyses                      Author-  Nitro-  phori<r  Pot- 

in  parentheses).                          ity.  Water.  Ash.  t:en.  itcid.  ash. 

Cabbage I  905.2  14.  :!.«  l.I  ^:^ 

Carrots 1  885.9  10.2  I  .«i  .9  5. 1 

Cauliflower I  908.2        8. 1  1  ..'1  1 .6  .'l.C 

4  904.          8.  4.  1.6  3.6 

Celery 4  841.  17.6  2.4  2.2  7.6 

Chive.s 4  820.           9.9  6.2  1.5  :i.:{ 

Chorogi  tul.cr 1  789.  10.9  4.1  1.9  6.4 

Corn,  sweet,  kcnicls 1  821.4         .').(i  4.6  .7  2.4 

Cucumber 1  9.59.9         4.6  1 .6  1 .2  2.4 

4  956.            5.8  1.6  12  2.4 

Garlic,  tuber 4  876.           H.4  4.5  1 .4  2.6 

leaves 4  908.           7.6  AA  .6  :{.l 

Horse-radish 1  766.1S  18.7  3.6  .7  11.6 

4  767.  19.7  4.:i  2.  7.7 

Lettuce,  Roman 4  925.           9.8  2.  1.1  2.5 

wh.iK-  plant 1  9;i6.8  16.1  2.:!  .7  :}.7 

••      4  943.  10.3  2.2  1.  ;i.9 

••      4  940.  8.1  .7  3.7 

Kohl-rabi 1  910. B  12.7  4.8  2.7  4.3 

4  850.  12.3  4.8  2.7  4.3 

Mushroom 4  888.  10.  4.7  3.4  5.1 

Onion 1  875.5  5.7  1.4  .4  1. 

"      4  860.  7.4  2.7  1.3  2.5 

Parsnip 1  803.4  10.3  2.2  1.9  C.2 

Peas 1  126.2  31.1  .35.8  8.4  10.1 

Pumpkin 1  922.7  6.3  1.1  1.6  .9 

4  900.  4.4  1.1  1.6  .9 

Radish 4  933.  4.9  1.9  .5  1.6 

Rhubarb,  stems  and  leaves 1  916.7  17.2  1.3  .2  3.6 

Spinach 1  924.2  19.4  4.9  1.6  2.7 

4  903.  16.  4.9  1.6  2.7 

Sweet  potato 1  729.6  9.5  2.3  1.  5. 

•'      4  758.  7.4  2.4  .8  3.7 

'•     1  712.6  10.  2.4  .8  3.7 

Tomato 1  936.4  4.7  1.6  .5  2.7 

Turnip 1  904.6  8.  1.8  1.  3.9 

Note.  — By  moving  decimal  points   one  place    to  the   left,   the  reader  may 
make  the  figures  express  percentages. 


APPENDIX  B. 

NOTES    10    THE    SECOXI)   EDITION. 

Since  Chapter  IV.  was  written,  great  interest  has  been 
shown  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet.  Success  in  this 
branch  of  agriculture  is  so  dependent  upon  a  continuous  and 
full  supply  of  moisture,  that  the  subject  of  providing  and  eon- 
serving  it  takes  on  a  new  and  added  interest. 

All  writers  on  sugar  beet  culture  recommend  deep  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil  for  this  crop,  not  alone  deep  ordinary  plowing, 
hut  subsoiling;  that  is,  loosening  the  soil  by  both  operations 
to  the  depth  of  twelve  or  more  inches.  The  reason  usually 
given  for  this  deep  tillage  is,  that  the  beet  tends  to  grow  out 
of  the  ground  if  the  tap-root  reaches  a  hard  subsoil  before  the 
beet  has  extended  its  tap-root  full  length.  All  this  is  true,  and 
it  is  also  a  fact  that  that  part  of  the  beet  which  is  exposed  to 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  or,  that  above  ground,  has  not  only 
a  less  per  cent  of  sugar  than  the  part  underground,  but  also 
contains  a  greater  per  cent  of  impurities  which  arrest  the  crys- 
tallization of  what  sugar  may  be  present  in  the  exposed  crowns ; 
therefore  the  land  designed  for  beets  should  be  broken  up  and 
loosened  by  the  action  of  the  subsoiler,  which  should  imme- 
diately follow  the  ordinary  plow.  But  it  may  easily  happen 
that  the  subsoiling  may  do  positive  injury  to  the  succeeding 
crop.  While  deep  preparatory  tillage  may,  and  usually  does, 
allow  the  root  to  descend  easily,  subsoiling,  if  not  performed 
at  the  proper  time,  or  if  it  is  not  followed  by  suitable  surface 
tillage,  often  arrests  capillary  action  by  leaving  the  subsurface 
soil,  —  or  that  which  has  been  loosened  by  the  subsoiler, —  so 
porous  and  non-compacted  as  to  arrest  energetic  capillary 
ftction.     The  fact  is,  that  deep  and  thorough  preparation  of   the 

{m) 


406  Appendix    B. 

land  Bets  free  or  makes  available  plant- food,  and  may  also  in- 
crease the  moisture -storing  capacity  of  the  soil.  In  some  cases, 
subsoiling  may  dimininish  the  capacity  of  the  subsurface  soil 
to  hold  moisture  or  to  lift  it  to  the  surface  soil,  as  in  case  of  a 
subsoil  already  porous  enough  or  too  porous. 

If,  then,  the  subsoil  needs  to  be  loosened  for  the  purpose 
of  liberating  plant-food  and  for  giving  the  root  easy  passage 
downward,  as  it  does  in  most  cases,  unusual  care  should  be 
taken  to  have  the  subsurface  soil  so  compacted  before  the  roots 
reach  it  that  it  will  be  fitted  in  the  highest  degree  both  for 
retaining  moisture  and  for  lifting  it  towards  the  surface.  If  the 
subsoiling  is  done  in  the  early  fall,  the  winter  rains  and  frosts 
will  fit  this  subsurface  soil  for  highest  elficiency.  If  the  sub- 
soiling  is  deferred  until  spring,  it  will  require  some  judgment 
to  discover  just  how  much  tramping  of  the  teams  and  pressure 
of  the  implements  will  be  necessary  to  suitably  compact  the 
soil  loosened  by  the  subsoiler. 

The  sugar  beet  requires  a  fairly  full  and  continuous  supply 
of  moisture  throughout  the  entire  growing  season,  for  if  the  beet 
suffers  seriously  from  lack  of  moisture  in  the  mid -career  of  its 
growth,  it  will  tend  to  ripen,  and  many  of  the  leaves  will  fall 
off.  Later,  when  the  September  rains  occur,  it  may  make  a 
second  growth,  and  beets  which  contained  from  12  to  15  per 
cent  of  sugar  at  the  close  of  Augiist  may  be  so  far  depleted  of 
their  sugar  content  by  this  second  growth  as  to  contain  but 
8  to  10  per  cent  by  the  first  day  of  October.  It  will  be 
seen  how  necessary  it  is  to  keep  the  beets  fully  and  continu- 
ously supplied  with  moisture  until  the  normal  season  of  ripen- 
ing approaches.  It  is  not  enough  to  simply  deepen  the  soil  and 
increase  its  moisture-holding  capacity:  the  moisture  should,  so 
far  as  possible,  be  conserved.  The  tramping  and  compacting 
of  the  surface  soil  by  the  workmen,  when  weeding  and  thinning, 
restores  the  capillarity  of  the  surface  soil,  and  there  is  great 
loss  of  moisture  unless  the  earth -mulch  is  speedily  restored  by 
surface  tillage.  Then,  too,  neglect  to  preserve  the  earth-mulch 
until  late  in  the  season  may  result  in  premature  ripening  and  a 
second  growth,  which  is  so  destructive  to  tlie  quality  of  the  beet, 


Tillage   of  Sugar   Beets.  407 

What  has  been  said  as  to  losses  which  may  occur  in  beet 
culture  by  neglect  to  conserve  moisture  in  a  dry  time,  is  meas- 
urably true  when  applied  to  other  inter-tilled  crops.  Mani- 
festly, plants  cannot  arrive  at  their  maximum  development  if, 
for  considerable  periods  of  time,  they  suffer  for  a  full  supply 
of  moisture,  though  the  land  may  have  been  prepared  in  the 
best  manner,  good  seed  used,  and  the  soil  fully  supplied  with 
available  plant -food.  There  is  no  sufficient  vehicle  to  can-y  the 
nutriment  into  the  plant.  Therefore,  too  much  care  cannot  be 
taken  to  conserve  moisture  in  our  erratic  climate. 

The  following  brief  extracts  give  in  clear  language  the 
science  of  capillary  attraction  as  applied  to  soil  moisture:* 

"After  gravity  has  removed  the  surplus  of  free  water  be- 
yond the  zone  of  plant  roots,  then  what  remains  is  largely 
within  the  control  of  the  tiller  of  the  soil.  The  product  of  the 
season  on  a  fertile  soil  is  largely  the  measure  of  his  use  of  this; 
water  supply  and  the  per  cent  he  can  make  available  to  the 
growing  crop But  why  should  water  in  a  half-satu- 
rated soil  rise  to  the  surface  and  be  thus  exposed  to  loss  by 
evaporation?  It  gravity  cannot  overcome  the  adhesive  force  of 
the  exposed  soil-grain  surfaces  and  carry  it  down,  what  power 
lifts  it  up?  If  water  will  not  descend  from  a  half -saturated  soil 
into  dry  soil  beneath,  what  causes  it  to  ascend?  When  the  soil 
is  fully  saturated,  gravity  controls  and  the  movement  of  water 
is  downward  only.  Gravity  is  the  important  factor  in  remov- 
ing the  free  water  in  a  pervious  soil.  When  the  moisture  con- 
tent is  reduced  to  one-fourth  saturation,  the  movement  of  water 
practically  ceases  between  these  two  points,  and  especially  be- 
tween half  and  quarter  saturation,  the  movement  may  be  in 
any  direction,  surface  tension  being  the  motive  power.  There 
are  two  important  factors  in  the  movement  of  soil  water  after 
drainage  has  ceased.  One,  the  thickness  of  the  water  films 
spread  over  the  soil-grains.  The  other,  their  continuity.  The 
exposed  surfaces  in  a  cubic  foot  of  clay  loam  soil  should,  if 
laid  out  flat,  cover  nearly   an  acre  of   ground.     A    fine    division 

*H.  R.  Hilton  in  Prairie  Farmer.  January  29,  189S. 


408  Appendix   B. 

and  uniform  arrangement  of  the  soil  particles  increase  the 
amount  of  surface,  and  hence  the  quantity  of  water  each  foot 
will  retain.  If  a  broad  rubber  band  is  slipped  over  a  marble 
and  pulled  with  a  gentle  pressure,  the  marble  will  represent 
the  soil-grain  and  the  rubber  band  the  film  of  moisture  ad- 
hering to  it.  Stretch  the  rubber  band  to  its  fullest  limit,  its 
thickness  is  diminished,  its  tension  increased ;  as  the  pull  on  the 
rubber  band  is  slackened  it  becomes  thicker,  and  is  finally  re- 
stored to  its  normal  condition.  When  the  rubber  band  is 
thickest  it  has  the  least  grip  on  the  marble ;  as  it  becomes 
thinner  by  stretching,  its  tension  or  grip  on  the  marble  is  in- 
creased. In  a  similar  way  the  water  adheres  to  the  soil -grains 
with  least  force  when  the  film  is  thickest  and  the  surface  ex- 
posed to  the  air  is  least,  and  with  greatest  force  when  the  film 
is  thinnest  and  the  surface  exposed  to  the  air  is  greatest.  When 
the  film  is  thinnest  its  strain  or  tension  is  greatest,  and  it  is  this 
strain  or  force  that  moves  the  water  from  the  point  in  the  soil 
where  the  films  are  thickest  to  the  point  in  the  soil  where 
they  are  thinnest  till  the  differences  are  adjusted.  This 
movement  has  a  limitation  not  yet  clearly  determined,  but  the 
thick  films  are  more  elastic  than  the  thin  ones,  and  will  move 
more  readily— that  is  to  say — the  movement  from  soil  25  per 
cent  moist  into  adjoining  soil  20  per  cent  moist  will  be 
more  free  and  rapid  than  when  the  differences  are  20  and 
15  per  cent.  The  freedom  of  movement  is  probably  in  pro- 
portion to  the  difference  in  moisture  content  down  to  the  point 
where  the  film  is  most  attenuated,  but  still  unbroken.  ^Vhen 
the  film  breaks,  movement  ceases.  It  is  like  a  broken  electric 
current." 

Plant-food  u^sed  bif  the  sugar  beet  crop. — The  following  fig- 
ures relative  to  the  plant -food  used  by  the  beet  crop  are  based 
upon  work  done  at  the  Cornell  Experimei)t  Station,  and  reported 
in  Bulletin  No.  143,  pp.  570  572: 

Nitrogen,  Botash,  Phosphoric  Water, 

<  <               acid.  <             < 

TrinimtMl  b«ets •>  ;«>               .U               79.6 

Sugar  beet  crowns 43  4'>               .V2               79.7 

Sufar  Ijeet  leaves 6i  I  <»!'               Jl              77.7 


Superphosphates .  409 

The  proportion  of  crowns  and  leaves  will,  of  course,  vary  con- 
siderably with  variety,  soil,  tillage  and  maturity.  The  results 
obtained  from  an  examination  of  quite  a  large  number  of  whole 
plants  indicate  that  on  an  average  there  are  57  per  cent  of 
trimmed  beets,  17  per  cent  of  crowns,  and  26  per  cent  of  leaves: 
or  to  produce  one  ton  of  trimmed  beets  ready  for  shipment  to 
the  factory,  there  would  also  be  grown  596  pounds  of  crowns  and 
912  pounds  of  leaves. 

The  plant-food  used  in  the  production  of  one  ton  of  market-  . 
able  sugar  beets  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Nitrogen.  Potash.  Phosphoric  Water, 

lbs.  Ihs.  acid,  lbs.        lbs. 

One  ton  trimmed  beets .5.60  7.20  2.20        1.592 

591  pounds  of  crowns 2.56  2.68  .72           475 

912  pounds  of  leaves 5.84  9.94  1.               708 

Total  plant-food  used  in  producing 

one  ton  of  trimmed  beets 14.  19.82  3.92 

A  crop  of  12  tons  per  acre  will  use. .  168.  237.84  47.04 

It  is  usual,  however,  to  leave  the  crowns  and  leaves  on  the 
land,  where  they  quickly  decay  and  give  up  their  fertilizing  con- 
stituents to  succeeding  crops.  The  amount  of  fertility  removed 
from  an  acre  of  land  by  taking  away  only  the  twelve  tons  of 
trimmed  beets  would  be  :  Nitrogen  67.2,  potash  86.4,  and  phos- 
phoric acid  26.4  pounds. 

The  following  table  gives  the  fertilizing  constituents  of  one 
ton  of  beet  pulp,  beet  molasses  and  lime-cake: 

Nitrogen.  Potash.  Phosphoric  Water, 

lbs.  lbs.  acid.  lbs.  lbs. 
One  ton  extracted  corsittus  or  beet 

pulp 1.82  1.72  .32  1.828 

One  ton  beet  molasses 21.40  65.20  ..34  8.32 

One  ton  of  lime-cake  from  the  puri- 
fying tanks 2.48  3.05  8.47  871 

Note  to  thr  Discussion  of  Superphosphates, 

Pages   298-302. 

The  term  "superphosphates"  is    somewhat    misleading    when 

we    come   to   consider   the   nature    of   the    substances    commonly 

known  as  "double    phosphates."     A  better  method    of    naming  is 

mentioned     by    Wiley*:    that    the     term     "acid     phosphate"    bt 

*Acriculttiral  Analysis  ii.  150. 


410  Appendix    B. 

applied  to  the  product  of  the  action  of  sulfuric  acid  on  trical- 
<Mum  phosphate,  and  "  Huperphosphate "  when  the  acting  acid 
is  phosphoric  acid.  In  either  case  the  same  compounds  of 
lime  and  phosphoric  acid  may  be  formed,  but  when  phosphoric 
acid  is  the  active  agent  there  is  no  gypsum  produced.  So  that 
the  true  "superphosphate"  may  differ  from  the  ordinary  ''acid 
phosphate"  only  in  the  absence  of  gypsum.  It  may,  in  conse- 
quence, carry  as  high  as  three  times  as  much  available  phos- 
j>horic  acid  as  the  ordinary  acid  phosphate. 

The  phosphoric  acid  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
these  superphosphates  is  obtained  from  tricalcium  phosphate  by 
the  action  of  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  reaction  may  be 
represented  V)y  the  equation: 


CaO  1  H,S04    H,0  |  CaSO^ 

CaO  ^P,0s-|-H,S04=H,0  ^P,05-f-CaS04 
CaO  J  HjSO*    H,oJ  CaS04 


Here,  all  the  calcium  of  the  tricalcium  phosphate  unites 
with  the  sulfuric  acid  to  form  gypsum,  and  the  phosphoric  acid. 
P3O5,  is  united    to    three    parts   of   water,  HaO.     This  compound 

with    water    lH»0>P»05l     is    the    true    phosphoric    acid    of    the 

chemist,  while  the  substance  designated  by  PjOj  is  the  phosphoric 
acid  of  the  agriculturist.  The  phosphoric  acid  made  in  this 
way  can  be  separated  from  the  gypsum  by  distillation  and  used 
to  act  on  more  tricalcium  phosphate. 

CaOl  HaOl  CaOl  H,0  i 

CaO  VPaOj+HaO  VP»05=H,0  ^PjOj-f-CaO  ^P.O, 
CaO  J  H,Oj  H,OJ  CaO  J 

Some  of  the  calcium  of  the  tricalcium  phosphate  unites  with 
the  free  phosphoric  acid  and  becomes  replaced  by  water  (HjO), 
thus  forming  both  mono-  and  dicalcium  phosphates,  which  to- 
gether constitute  available  phosphoric  acid.  There  is  no  gypsum 
produced  in  this  reaction,  because  there  is  no  sulfuric  acid 
present.  When  pbosphatic  fertilizers  are  to  be  transported  long 
distances,  there  is  much  saving  in  freight  by  using  high  grade 
products,  which  may  contain  as  high  as  40  per  cent  'of  available 
phosphoric  acid. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Absorbents,  straw,  muck  and  earth 
as 236,  237 

Acid  soils,  plants  which  are  killed 
by 317 

—  —  plants  which  thrive  upon 318 

Acidify  of  soils,  liming  to  correct... 313 
Aeration  of  soils,  need  of 80 

—  —  —  promoted  by  plowing 80 

Agriculture,  the  fundamental  labor 

of 61 

Aikman  explains  action  of  gj-psum.254 

—  remarks  of  upon  lime  and  nitrifi- 

cation   229 

Albuminoids,  use  of  by  animal 144 

Alfalfa,  objections  to 347 

Alkali  lands,  result  of  capillarity. . .  84 

—  —  deep  tillage  on S'l 

Amendments  to  soil  explained 303 

American  plow,  development  of 59 

Ammonia,  how  it  is  affected  by  va- 
rious substances 238,  239 

—  set  free  by  lime 309 

—  chief  source  of  loss  of  nitrogen 

from  manure 23."> 

—  in  rain-fall 128 

—  in  rainwater 73 

Ammonium  sulfate,  injurious  effects 

of 323 

Analyses  of  soils  and  plants,  value 

of 23 

Anderson,  James,  wrote  an  essay  on 

quicklime 304 

—  Leroy,  test  of  plows  by 98 

Animals,  their  use  modifies  value  of 

pxcrement 142 


PAOE 

.\nimals,  voidings  of,  incomplete  re- 
turns to  land 11 

—  and   their   powers   to    assimilate 

food 142 

Apple  orchards,  plant-food  removed 

by 2ti 

Annsby,  Prof.  H.  P.,  facts  furnished 

by  regarding  horse  manure 166 

.\sh  of  plants,  analysis  of  tells  but 

little 22 

—  —  —  constituents    of    found    in 

soils 22 

.Vsh  wood,  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash in 358 

Ashes,   analyses  of 333,  .33t 

—  hard-wood,  variability  in  quality  333 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  quoted 62,  248 

Barley,  relative  proportion  of  ele- 
ments in 136 

—  plant-food  removed  by 28 

Barn  manures,  meaning  of  term. . . .  131 
Barnyards,  covered,  advantages  of.  189 

—  covered 189 

—  —  size  of  for  twenty  cows 189 

Boets  produced  on  acid  soils 326 

Biernatzki,    analysis     of    manures 

made  by 201 

Bread,  A.  M.,  investigation    of   on 

clovers 345 

Burrill,  T.  D.,  used  a  wheel  for  plow 

landside 50 

Caldwell,  Prof.  G.  C,  remarks  upon 

laud  plaster 327 

California,  use  of  sulky  plow  in 57 

Calorie,  a  unit  of  heat  and  energy  . .  144 


(411) 


412 


Index. 


PAGE 

Can»d«  thistles,  plowing  under O.'i 

Capillarity,  brings  plant-food  to 
surface W 

Carbonaceous  matter  not  a  fertiliz- 
ing element 144 

Catch  crop  should  be  used  on  sandy 
soils 89 

Cavanaugh,  George  W.,  article  on 
nitrification  by 244 

Clay  lands  benefited  by  fall  plow- 
ing   88 

—  soils,  action  of  lime  on 307 

coarse  manure  on 211 

ill  effects  produced  by  sub- 
merging   73 

Clinton,  L.  A.,  article  by  on  home 

mixing  of  fertilizers 289 

Clover  as  a  cover  crop 347 

—  crimson  for  the  south 231 

—  —  in  warm  climate 347 

—  as  a  fallow  plant 352 

—  the  host-plant  of  grasses 360 

—  nodules,  analysis  of 348 

i'lovers,  crimson  and  red  in  orchards. 116 

—  amount  of  fertility  in  an  average 

crop 344 

—  beneficial  eflfects  may  be  phy8ical.346 

—  as  green  manures 342 

—  to  supplement  manures 31,  32 

—  amount  of  nitrogen  stored  up  by .  348 

—  improve  physical  condition  of  soil  343 

—  for  renovating  pastures 349 

—  varieties  which  do  best 346 

Coal-ashes  have  no  value  as  plant- 
food 335 

Corn,  plowing  land  for 76 

Cotton,  analysis  of  seed  and  lint 25 

—  amount  grown  in  U.  S.  in  1890... .  25 

—  plant-food  removed  by 25 

—  seed  hull  ashes,  analysis  of 335 

—  areas,  fertilizers  for 138 

Cover  crops  highly  beneficial 208 

use  of  in  cotton  belt 138 

—  —  likely  to  precede  liming 305 

rye,  wheat,  and  oats  as 348 


PAGK 

<  'over  crops,  OM  of 253 

Cow  manure,  decrease  in  value  of 
by  leaching 192 

—  —  losses  when  exposed  to  air 196 

—  giving  milk,  water  drunk  by 195 

—  pen,  use  of  as  green  manure 347 

Cows,  feeding  and  value  of  manure 

from 153,  VA 

—  amount    of    manure   and    milk 

produced  by 158 

—  and  calves,  remarks  on  care  of  in 

winter 204,  205 

Crops,  causes  of  low  yields 32 

Cultivators,  proper  shape  for  teeth.  105 
Deserts,  causes  or  and  changes  in..  .125 

Denitriflcation,  explanation  of 248 

Drainage,  benefits  derived  from.127, 128 

—  surface  by  dead  furrows 72 

—  by  oi)en  furrows 92 

—  and  irrigation 120 

—  increases  power  of  soils  to  hold 

moisture 128 

—  hastens  nitrification 230 

—  surface,  promoted  by  drill  marks  73 

—  —  in  south 93 

—  proper  way  of  laj'ing  out  a  system  129 

—  icarmi  the  land 127 

Drains,  necessity  of 72 

—  increase  storage  capacity  of  soils.  79 

Drill,  invented  by  Jethro  Tull 38 

Earth  as  an  absorbent  for  manures. 237 

—  dr>-,  is  a  conserver  of  nitrogen. .  .244 

Eveuer,  a  handy  three-horse 96 

Eveucrs,  how  to  make 97 

Excrements  from  sheep,  value  ot. .  .168 
— amount  of 167 

—  comparative  value  of  from  differ- 

ent nnimais  156 

—  value  modified  by  kind  of  food. . .  145 
use  of  the  word 131 

Fallows,  short,  benefits  of 353,  364 

—  gone  out  of  fashion 70 

—  history  ot 349 

—  promote  nitrification 230 

—  chief  objects  apd  met))ods 351 


Index. 


41;] 


PAQE 

Fallows,  green  summer  defined 352 

Farm  manures,  meaning  of  term. . . .  132 

Farmer,  a  chat  with 1 

Fertility  may  be  dormant 2t» 

—  true  meaning  of 0 

Fertilizer  law,  abstract  of  for  differ- 
ent states 26C,  267 

—  tags  misleading  and  confusing.  .2S2 

—  samples  of  tags 284,  28.") 

Fertilizers,  how  problems  concerning 

application  of  must  be  solved. . .  2-4 

—  how  to  apply 274 

—  brands  of  in  New  York 2C5 

—  commercial 260 

—  adapted  to  various  crops 272 

—  value  of  different  elements 1j1 

—  necessity  of  experimenting 289 

—  use  of  by  farmers 2(51 

—  growth  of  the  industry 260,  2C1 

—  home  mixing  of 280-290 

—  necessity  for  use  of 270 

—  how  to  know  what  is  needed 134 

—  profitable  in  some  places  not  in 

others  27.') 

—  why  good  results. do  not  always 

follow  application  of 24 

—  superphosphates,  cliemistry  of.. 21(8 

—  tlieory  with  reference  to 137 

—  how  their  use  may    impoverish 

the  soil 270 

—  use  of  in  market-gardening 276 

—  estimating  commercial  value  ol'.  .277 

—  waste  in  application  of 21! 

Fields,  large  ones  most  economiial.  9.") 
Foliage,      necessity      for      keeping 

healthy 100 

Foods,  relative  amounts  of   energy 
contained  in 14,") 

—  amount  of  fertilizing  elements  of 

returned  in  excrements 143 

—  the  utilization  of  by  animals 144 

Forestry  should  be  encouraged 120 

Fowls,  value  of  eicrenient  from ....  174 
Friction,    causes    whii-li    determine 

amount  of 48 


I'AOK 

Girard  and  Miintz,  investigations  of 

on  foods  and  manures 19.'» 

Grain  differs  in  composition 225 

—  crops,  harrowing  of 119 

inter-cultural  tillage  for 10« 

Grasses,  good  practice  as  to  seed- 
ing  idii 

Greiner,  T.,  quotation  from  on  home 

mixing  of  fertilizers 21h> 

Gypsum,  its  action  upon  ammonia .  .238 

—  its  action  on  ammonia 241 

—  its  action  in  stable  and  field. 229,  23<) 

—  as  a  conservcr  of  moisture 329 

—  effect  of  on  sheep  manure 200 

—  amount  of  lime  in 329 

—  does  not  have  the  action  of  lime. 324 

—  use  of  in  preserving  manure 189 

—  one    constituent    of     superphos- 

phate   302 

—  use  of  has  declined 327 

—  decline  in  use  of , .  .254 

—  use  of  in  stables y.  .328 

Hard-pan,  forming  of  in  porous  soils  77 
Harper's   Weekly,  reservoirs  at   the 

head  of  the  Mississippi 124 

Harrow  and  drag,  work  of 103 

Harrowing  grain  crops 118 

—  tools 103 

Harrow,  Acme 105 

—  proper  construction  of lo:; 

Hari'ows  on  wheels  are  best 104 

—  should  be  large 104 

—  spring  tooth 105 

Hart  well,  B.  L.,  article  by  upon  acid- 
ity of  upland  soils 313 

Hawaiian  Islands,  plowing  in 72 

Hay,  plant-food  removed  by 28 

Hen  manure,  value  of  per  ton 174 

—  —  fresh,  value  of 170 

—  —  sun-dried,  value  of 175 

Herbert  A.,  compilation  of  tables  by. 180 
Hickory,  phosphoric  acid   and  pot- 
ash in 358 

Hilgard,    Prof.    K.    W.,    report    on 
alkali  lands 84 


414 


Index. 


I'AOK 

Flilgard,  Prof.    E.  W.,  remarks  by 
upou  the  alkali  soils XOl 

—  —  —  —  remarks     upon    liming 

land 3ia,  314,  3i:> 

Holdefleiss  calculates  loss  of  nitro- 
gen   236 

Horse  manure,  loss  of  by  leaching..  101 

—  manures,  study  of 162,  163 

Horses,  amount  of  excrement  from 

nine,  in  one  day 191 

—  amount  of  manure  produced  by, 

and  value  of 16.'! 

Hubener,  Th.,  remarks  upon  humus.ul" 
Humus  aids  in  conserving  moisture.lK! 

—  is  rich  in  nitrogen 2J« 

—  its  value  in  soil 216 

—  improves  texture  of  soil 61 

—  effect    ut>on    water-heUliug    ca- 

pacity of  soil 258 

Husbandry,   Horse  Hoe,   by  Jetliro 

Tull  t:i 

Immendorff,  H.,  article  by  on  con- 
servation of  nitrogen  in  stable 

manure 2it.'t 

Implements  for  surface  tilling I(i2 

Iron  sulfate,  its  action  on  ammonia.2::>J 

Irrigation  and  drainage 120 

sub-drainage 122 

—  an  engineer's  problem 120 

—  in  humid  climates 121 

.h'fferson,  Thomas,  remarks  on  plow  45 

—  —  theory  of  plow 45 

Jethro  Tull,  believed  in  horse  hoe 

tillage 11 

Job,  Book  of,  refers  to  the  plow :!5 

Johnson,  S.  W.,  quotation  from. . .  .315 
Johnston,    Jas.    F.    W.,    quotation 

from 316 

Jointer  valuable  on  sod  land 04 

—  cannot  be  used  on  stony  land 64 

—  and  its  use  on  plows 64,  65 

Jones,  Major  W.  A.,  a  competent 

engineer 123 

Jordan,  W.  H.,  statement  from   as 
to  cost  of  fertilizers 280 


PAOX 

Kainit,  its  action  upon  ammonia.... 2Jtf 

Lambs,  value  of  manure  from 170 

l^nd,  drying  and  warming  of 76 

Lauman,  G.  K.,  translation  by 233 

I.<eguminou8  ciops  can  be  made  to 
furnish  nitrogen 226 

—  plants,  xise  of  as  cover  crops 138 

— in  south 23i 

uses  of 31 

l.«ttuce,  yields  of  on  acid  soils.  .325,  ;i26 
Lime,  its  action  on  soils 228 

—  action  of  on  sandy  soils 306 

—  as  a  soil  amendment 303 

—  amount  to  use  i>er  acre 312 

—  accelerates  ammonia  formation.  .238 

—  se'.s  free  ammonia  of  manures. .  .309 

—  air-slaked  not  good  for  mortar  or 

land 311 

-  where  likely  beneficial 312 

—  carbonate  of,  impurities  in 304 

—  caustic   or    quicklime,    how   ob- 

tained   303 

—  an  indirect  fertilizer 305 

—  hydrate,  how  formed 303 

—  on  grass  lands,  apply  in  fall 311 

—  and  gypsum  to  set  free  plant-food. 2.V2 

—  its  relation  to  nitrification 227 

—  action  of  on  phosphoric  acid  and 

potash 254 

—  and  its  compounds   with   phos- 

phoric acid 298 

—  action  of  on  potash  in  soils 308 

—  on   land  tends  to  prevent  rust, 

smut,  etc 309 

—  promotes  scab  of  potatoes 310 

-  how  to  slake  for  the  land 310 

—  slaking  of  for  plastering 310 

—  slaking  of  increases  weight  and 

bulk 306 

—  its  action  on  clay  soils :t07 

—  may  deplete  the  soil 312 

—  l>eneficial  on  i)eaty  soils :tOi* 

—  sources  of 303 

—  how  to  spread  on  land 313 

—  first  use  of 304 


Tndfx. 


4]  5 


I'AGE 

JLiime,  weiglit  of    per  bushel  when 
fresh  from  kiln 30.') 

—  does  not  kill  wire-worms,  slugs, 

etc 310 

Limestone  should  be  burned  near 
quarry 306 

—  weiitht  of  a  ton  of  after  burn- 

ing  305 

I.imini;  to  correct  acidity  of  soils. .  .313 

—  soils,  benefits  of 2^7 

—  in  England,  practice  of 304 

Litmus   paper   as    a   test  for  acid 

soils 314-316 

Maize  culture,  shallow  earth-mulch 
for 11.') 

—  relative  proportion  of  elements  in  1.3ti 

—  plant-food  removed  by 27 

—  benefited  by  nitrogen 218 

—  early  plowing  for  .....' 90 

—  plowing  clover  sod  for 90 

—  tillage  of 102 

—  average  yield  pt-r  acre  of  L'.  S.  in 

1889 27 

Mangolds,    relative    proi>ortion    of 
elements  in 130 

—  on  acid  soils 320 

Manure,  time  of  application  of 209 

—  from  calves,  amount  and  value..  .162 

—  —  cattle,  a  discussion  of 152 

—  value  of  cattle 157, 158 

—  of  cattle,  value  of  when  fed  on 

cotton  waste 157 

—  cow,  value  of  when  kept  under 

different  conditions 160, 161 

—  hen,  value  of  air  dried 176,  177 

—  from  hens,  value  of 174, 175 

—  hen,  value  of  fresh 176 

—  from  horses,  amount  and  value 

of 163.164,165 

—  liorse,  loss  of  by  leaching 191 

—  —  from  livery  stable 166 

—  from  horses,  studies  of 162 

—  illustrations  showing  how  wasted  184 

185, 186, 187 

—  exposed  to  air,  losses  in 196 


pa<;k 
Manure,   losses   of   in   weight   and 
bulk  when  exposed 199 

—  how  can  the  losses  from  be  re- 

duced  230 

—  prevention  of  loss  of  nitrogen  in.2:J2 

—  mixed,  value  of  in  covered  barn- 

yard   194 

—  value  of  mixed   from  a  covered 

yard ].">5 

—  mixed,    rel;iti\e     proportion     of 

elements  in 130 

—  nitrogen  in  conserved  by  straw.  .236 

—  of  pigeons,  value  of 178, 179 

—  platforms  or  pits,  use  of 190 

—  preserved  in  box-stalls 201 

—  sampling,  accuracy  in  method  194,195 

—  slied,  plan  of 204, 205,  200 

— ■  spreaders,  tise  of 212 

—  from  swine,  value  of. 171,  174 

—  value  of  different  rations 170 

— from     various    farm     ani- 
mals   181, 182 

—  of    sheep,  calves   and   pigs   com- 

pared   109 

—  waste  of  on  the  farm 202 

—  yards,  covered 201 

Manures,  maximum  amounts  to  ap- 
ply  210 

—  their  application 20" 

—  heavy   applications   may   do    in- 

jury  , 209 

—  application  of  on  clay  land 211 

—  —  —  sandy  soils 212 

—  applied  as  a  top  dressing  in  fall. .  J 17 

—  barn,    amount  of  plant-food  re- 

stored by 31 

—  barn,  relatively  rich  in  nitrogen.  31 

—  kind  of  bedding  iLsed  as  affecting 

value 147 

—  ways  in  which  they  benefit  land.  .208 

—  care,  preservation    and    applica- 

tion of 188 

—  rules  for  distribution  of 213 

—  fertilizing  value  of  foods  returned 

in 196.197 


4  If) 


Index. 


PAGE 

Manurex    may     b«     removed    from 
stubleto  field 1!K) 

—  tfroen,  use  of 342 

—  I'.iss  by  exposing lOll 

—  mcaniiiK  of  term l.Tl 

—  effect  of  upon  soil  moisture 148 

—  relatively  rich  in  nitrogen i:!2 

—  use  of  gj-psum  in  preserving }>>f.) 

—  farm,    factors    whicli    determine 

quality 141 

—  exposed  to  rain  may  be  benefited. .!.'« 

—  II  convenient  shed  for  storing 20;t 

—  better  near  surface 91 

—  considerations  resjjecting  use  of.lH'J 

—  waste  in  use  of 211 

—  how  waste  may  be  prevented 202 

—  values  beside  fertilizing 149 

—  conditions  which  modify  value  of.  140 

—  the  waste  of ix:; 

Manuring  of  land,   conclusions   re- 
specting  l.'J'J 

Marl,  analyses  of :!:!7,  X'.H 

Mayer,  A.,  remarks  upon  sour  soils. :i1(i 
Meadow  land,  mulch  of  fine  mantire 

for 11(1 

Mississip))!  river,  holding  back  the 

headwaters  of TJI! 

Moisture,  amount  soils  may  contain  7.S 

—  capacity  of  soils  to  hold 77 

—  —  —  soil,  how  increased KKt 

—  conservation  of lOS 

—  conserved  by  mulches Ill 

—  problem    more    imi)ortant    than 

fertilizers I'ls 

—  importance  of  for  plants lOS,  liK.) 

—  effects  of  plowing  on 72 

—  effect  of  hard  and  softsiirface  soil 

upon x'l 

—  in  soils,  how  brought  to  surface. .   70 

—  holding    capacity     of    soils     in- 

creased by  Jeep  tillage 77,  7S 

Muck  as  an  absort>«nt  for  manure.  .2;iti 

—  analyses  of XIH 

Muli'h  of  earth  conserves  moisture. 101 

—  for  conserving  moisture ItiO 


PAOK 

Mulch  of  vegetable  matter 87 

Mulder,  remarks  upon  litmus  paper..'ll<! 
Mitntz  and  Girard,  investigation  of 
on  foods  and  manures 1».'> 

—  —  —  experiments  of  to  determine 

loss  of  nitrogen 23.'> 

—  —  —  refer  to  acid  soils 314 

—  —  —  experiments  with  sulfate  of 

iron  on  holding  ammonia 243 

Newl>old,  Chas.,  first  American  cast- 
iron  plow  made  by 4« 

New  Jersey,  plowing  in 77 

—  —  semi-desert     portions     made 

productive 10 

Nitrates,  what  they  are 24.'> 

Nitric  acid,  how  obtained  by  plants. 24.'» 
Nitrification,    conditions    favorable 

for 24C 

—  active  in  dark 82 

-  hastened  by  drainage TM 

—  explanation  of 244 

—  promoted  by  fallows 230 

—  relation  of  lime  to 227 

—  aided  by  plowing 82 

—  how  promoted 82 

-  promoted  by  plowing 81 

—  promoted  by  tillage 2l.'> 

—  usually  too  rapid  In  light  si.'.N. .  .:!07 

—  active  in  the  soiich 2J0 

Nitrogen,  abundance  of,  how  indi- 
cated  t' 214 

—  frequent  light  applications  most 

economical 20 

—  beneficial  results  from  use  of  not 

always  apparent 232 

—  proportion     of    in    some    farjn 

crops 138 

—  danger  from  too  much 82 

on  forage  crops 210 

liow  to  provide  on  the  fa»;n.  226,  227 

-  .se<-urfd  from  Bianures  by  feeding 

albuminous  tf>ods 151 

—  added     to    soil    by    leguminous 

plants 151 

—  f-irnished  by  leguminous  crops.   226 


Index. 


417 


PAQX 

Nitrogen  cheaply  obtained  by 
leguminous  plants 2W 

—  losses  of,  when  and  where  thiy 

occur 235 

—  how   to    prevent  its   loss   from 

manure 232 

—  promotes  leaf  growth 224 

—  amount  brought  down  by  rain- 

fall   31 

—  how  best  for  farmer  to  secure  for 

plant  s  151 

—  supply  of  from  rain  and  air.  .132,  133 

—  may  be  too  abundant  in  soil 217 

—  amount  of  in  soil 250 

—  soils, 18 

—  in  manure  saved  by  straw 230 

—  how  its  loss  is  affected  by  use  of 

sulfate  of  iron  and  gjpsum 240 

—  made  available  by  tillage 82 

—  amount  removed  by  wheat 257 

-  application  of  to  wheat 274 

Oak,  white,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  in 358 

Oats,  relative  proportion  of  elements 
in 130 

—  and  fungous  diseases 89 

—  plant-food  removed  by 28 

Orchards,  apple,  plant-food  re- 
moved by 20 

—  cover  crops  in 110 

—  earth-mulch  for 115,  110 

Pasture,  how  to  improve 110 

—  renovation  of  by  clovers ,. . .  .349 

—  and  meadows,  plants  on Ill 

Peacock,   David,  improved  plow  in 

1807 46 

Peat,    swamp   mud,    etc.,    analyses 

of 336,  337 

Percolation  assisted  by  plowing. ...   73 
Phosphoric      acid,      dicalcium     ex- 
plained  299 

proportion  of  in  some   farm 

crops 136 

where  found 299 

—  —  insoluble,  value  of 287 

BB 


PAOK 

Phosphoric    acid.    Insoluble,     how 

changed  to  soluble 300 

monocalcium  explained 30C 

amount  of  in  soils 18 

does  not  leach  out  of  soil 20 

reverted  explained 30 1 

supply  of 249 

—  —  tricalcium  explaine<l 299 

and  jwtash,  effect  of  on  fruit- 
age   217 

—  compounds  it  forms  with  lime. .  .298 
Pickering,  Timothy,  form  of  mold- 
board  advocated 47 

Pierce,   David,  improved  the  mold- 
board  of  plows 49 

Pig  manure,  value  of  per  year 172 

value   of   per    year    on     dif- 
ferent rations 173 

Pigeon  manure,  value  of 179 

Pine,  old-field,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  in 358 

—  straw  as  bedding 147 

Plankers,  use  of 103 

Plant  analysis  reveals  but  little 20 

—  -food  may  be  too  abundant 22,  23 

—  —  conditions  determining  avail- 

ability    19 

extraneous  sources  of 29 

amount  removed  by  wheat ....  21 

Plants,  food  required  by 20 

—  foi-mation  of  roots  of 83 

Plow,  American,  form  taken  by 59 

—  Berkshire,  in  England,  in  1730. . .  38 

—  cast-iron,  modelled  by  Col.  John 

Smith 46 

—  improvements  in  cast-iron 48 

—  draft  increased  by  colters 41 

—  requisites  for  further  devel'ment.  59 

—  definition  of  terms  relating  to. . . .  34 

Bridle 34 

Colter  or  Cutter 34 

l^ock-colter 34 

Land-side 34 

Share,  or  Point 34 

Jointer,  or  Skim  Plow 34 


418 


Index. 


PAOI 

''low,  easy  draft  r».  etBeieney 47 

-—  dpvelopnient  of  in  America 44 

—  development  of  in  Old  World 31 

—  a  tyi)e  of  the  early :;5 

—  East  Indian  type  of 35 

—  East  I^thian  type  of 40 

—  East  Lothiiiu  type 41 

~  Egyptian  type  of 36 

—  Eleventh  Century  type 36 

—  English,  of  Eleventh  Century 37 

—  the  evolution  of 34 

—  used  in  parts  of  France 37 

—  loss  by  friction 41 

—  weight  of,  friction  due  t«> 64 

—  glass 54 

—  fundamental  idea  of  from  Hol- 

land    38 

—  used  in  Holland    in   Eighteenth 

Century 38 

—  the  ideal 58 

—  improved   by  David  Peaco<k  in 

1807 46 

—  improved  by  Witherson  &  Pierce 

in  1839 49 

—  invented  by  Daniel  Webster 50 

—  land-side,  a    wheel,  invented   by 

Burrill SO 

—  Midlothian  type  of 42 

—  modifications  of  in  recent  years..  48 

—  economy  in  bold  moldboard 42 

—  moldboards  hardened  in  oil 55 

—  resistance  of  moldboard 48 

—  steel  moldboard  on 54 

—  effort  to  secure  one  that  would 

scour 54 

—  shallow  in  spring 90 

—  steel  prairie  stubble 57 

—  use  of  sulky  in  California 57 

—  sulky,  use  of 93 

—  theory  of  construction 47 

—  for  opening  trenches 51 

—  trial  at  Utica,  result  of 98 

—  wood-beam 58 

—  work  accomplished  by  a  good 71 

Plowing,  aeration  promoted  by 80 


i-Ar.K 

Plowing  deep,  benefits  of 74 

when  desirable 90 

may  be  a  positive  injury 7."> 

—  depths    of    in    spring     and     in 

autumn 73 

—  energy  used  in  severing  the  fur- 

row-slice    64 

—  energy  used  in  different  parts  of 

the  operation 64 

—  English  idea  of 42 

—  fall,  beneficial 65 

—  in  fall  should  be  done  early €» 

—  to  bring  fertility  to  the  surface. .  84 

—  narrow  furrow  to  be  avoided 86 

—  methods  of    laying    the  furrow- 

slice 66 

—  wide  furrows  best 98 

—  in  Hawaiian  Islands 72 

—  with  three  horses,  line  arrange- 

ment   94 

—  with  six  horses 95 

—  how  to  do  it 90 

—  usually  imperfectly  i)erf omied . . .  C3 

—  importance  of  doing  well C3 

—  physical  condition  improved  b.v. .  82 

—  when    land    is    too   drj-    injuri- 

ous    90 

—  day  lands  in  the  fall 88 

—  light  lands 93 

—  sandy  and  friable  lands C7 

—  stubble  land  should  be  inverted . .  69 

—  difference  between  English  and 

American  methods 42 

—  liberates  mineral  matter 82 

—  effects  of  on  moisture 72 

—  effects  on  soil  moisture '•> 

—  in  New  Jersey 77 

—  promotes  nitrification 81,  82 

—  increases  area  of  nourishment...  86 

—  chief  object  of 42 

—  to  destroy  plants 6:1 

—  method  of  on  prairies 52 

—  reasons  for 62,  63 

—  general  remarks  on 62 

—  specific  results  of 72 


Index. 


419 


PAGK 

Plowing  clay  soils T:) 

ill  the  fall (iT 

proper  way 300 

—  porous  soils 77 

—  to  pulverize  tlie  soil 63 

—  sniidy  soils 30" 

—  spring  or  fall 88 

—  subsoil ">I 

—  -  to  improve  texture  of  soil CI 

—  how  to  strike  out  latiils !)1 

—  team  best  adapted  for ii4 

—  strong  teams  needed  for 71 

—  trench 51 

—  to  bury  trash 86 

--■  when  to  (lo  it 87 

• ■  not  to  do  it 90 

Plows,     case-hardening  or   chilling 

process  discovert  d  in  1803 43 

Improved 43 

—  prejudice  to  castinm 40 

—  colter  and  its  uses  on U8 

—  draft  of 98 

—  line  of  draft  in tt,") 

—  Euglisii,  iiiiptM  feet  iu  principle.  42 

—  g'lugi  introduction  of 5G 

—  —  use  of 105 

—  joincer,  uses  oi tU 

—  moldboard  should  l)e  bold 64 

—  moldboards    chilled    or    carbon- 

ized    56 

—  moldboard  uses   10  per  cent    of 

the  energj' 63 

-  moldboards,    method     now    em- 

ployed in  hardening 56 

—  prairie,  description  of 52 

—  for  sod  and  tor  stubble C9 

—  sulky,  advantages  ot 57 

—  —  introduction  of 5ti 

--  t rench,  made  in  ISiiu 50 

IV.tash,    amount    carried    in    some 

soils 30 

-•  —  of  in  soils 18 

—  does  not  leach  out  of  soil 20 

-  and  phosphoric  ucid,  effect  of  ou 

fruitage 217 


PA«K 

Potash,  proportion  of  iu  manures 
and  some  farm  crops KSfi 

—  supply  of 24!) 

Potatoes,    relative     proportion     of 

elements  in V.Vu 

—  deep  feeding  plants 61t 

—  deep  earth-mulch  for 11.". 

—  cause  of  poor  quality 1  1j< 

scab  promoted  by  lime IJlii 

gypsum  increases  scab  upon I)2>< 

—  experiments  in  tillage  at  Cornell 

University 210,  222 

—  average  yield   in  New  York  for 

1889 251 

Production,   elements    which    enter 
into II 

—  increased  by  superior  tillage IC 

Productivity     not     a     question    of 

plant-food Ki 

Proteids,  tise  of  by  animal 1J4 

Puddling  of  soils,  how  pievented 73 

Rainfall,      amount      of       nitrogen 

brought  down  by 31 

—  from  April  to  October  in  1895  and 

1896 222 

Ransome,  Robert,  discovered  method 

of  case-hanlening  plows 43 

made  plowshares  of  cast-iron 

in  1785 43 

Ration,  narrow  one  is  undesirable.  .145 

Rations,  manurial  value  of 170 

Reservoirs  for  holding  back  waters.  126 

Roller,  use  of 102 

Root-pruning  not  usually  desirable .  86 
Rotation  lessens  insect  enemies 368 

—  may  increase  production 363 

—  distributes  the  work  of  the  year. 36** 
-  a  three  years' 370 

—  a  good  four  years' 307,  368 

Rotations,  specitic  directions  upon.. 301 

—  economize  plant  food 366 

—  may  increase  fertility 372 

—  importance  of 356,  357 

—  long,  where  desirable 371,  372 

—  short,  where  desirable 372 


420 


Index. 


PAOB 

RuflBu  cpeaks  of  the  pine 318 

Kyo  as  a  cover  crop 116 

Salt,     applicatiou    of     tu     manure 
heaps .'M(» 

—  and  conservation  of  moisture :mu 

—  anil    lorpsum    as    conservers    of 

moisture 332 

—  action  of  on  soils 339,  340 

—  its  action  on  soils 2.')4 

—  and  wire- worms 340 

.Sanborn,  J.  W.,  test  of  plows  by 98 

Sandy  soils,  action  of  lime  on '.M6 

how  to  plow 307 

methods  of  treatment 114 

S<'hiffer,  J.    R.,  experiment   by  on 

preserving  manure 200 

Schultz-Lupitz,  remarks  upon  sour, 

sandy  soils 31C 

refers  to  sour  soils 314 

Seeding  to  grass  and  clover,  prac- 
tice of 106 

Seeds,  small  require  shallow  cover. .  99 

Shavings  used  as  bedding 14" 

Sheep  manure,  losses  in  when  ex- 
posed to  air 196 

—  excrements,  discussion  of 167 

Sheldon,  remarks  of  on  manures..  .199 
Smith,  Col.  John,  modelled  a  cast- 
iron  plow 4ti 

Snyder,  Prof.,  remarks  by  on  soil.-* 

and  gypsum 25C.  330 

Sodium  carbonate  on  acid  soils .326 

Soil  analysis  shows  but  little 139 

—  demands  by  some  crops ".  25 

—  in  Red  River  Valley 256 

—  necessity  for  fining  underneath. .  1 1^! 

—  native  plant-food  in 11 

—  gravelly,  composition  of 17 

—  inverting  of  may  injure  succeed- 

ing crops 68 

—  moisture  effects  of  plowing  on. . .  72 

—  preparation  of   for  deep-feeding 

plants 6!i 

—  storage  capacity  of 77 

—  weight  of  an  acre  of  1  fo«>t  de«-p.  .2.'>C 


PAOB 

Soils,  acid,  liming  to  correct 313 

—  table  showing  analyses  of 12-l.'i 

'-  clay,  application  of  manures  on.. 211 

—  clay  require  skill  in  treatment. . .  30 

—  physical  conditions  important...  87 

—  good   physical  conditions    neces- 

sary   83 

—  how  to  tine  economically 40 

—  amount  of  plant-food  in 16 

—  ne(;essity  for  thorough  prepara- 

tion   70 

—  sandy,  action  of  lime  on 306 

—  —  application  of  manures  on. ..  .212 

—  —  methods  of  treatment 114 

—  texture    of     improved     in    thre« 

ways 61 

—  light  and  sandy  respond  cnickly 

to  tillage 10 

—  weathering  of 70 

—  weight  of  i>er  acre  one  foot  deep.  18 

an  acre  one  foot  deep 77 

Spring  plowing  l>est  done  early 80 

Spring- toothed  implements,  use  of. .  101 
Storer,  quotation  from 315 

—  need  of  nitrogen  set  forth  by 223 

Straw,  manurial  value  of 167 

—  helps    to    conserve    nitrogen    in 

manure 236 

.Stutzer,  A.,  remarks  upon  acid  soils. 316 
Subsoil,   how    to  utilize  plant-food 

>" IB  268,  3:i0  / 

-  plant-food  in 18/ 

Subsoiling  largely  gt>ne  out  of  prac- 
tice   74 

Superphosphate,    its     action     upon 
ammonia 230 

Superj>hosphates,  chemistry  of 208 

Swine,    composition    of   excrement 
from  different  rations 172 

—  value  of  excrements  from  .  .  .171-174 
Thomas  slag,   accelerates  ammonia 

formation 238 

Tillage,   deep    and    shallow,    where 
best 100 

—  English  and  American  methods..  42 


Index. 


421 


PAGE 

Tillage  to  make  mineral  food  avail- 
able  2:.2 

—  multiplies  rootlets 85 

—  surface,  object  of 99 

may  be  overdone 115 

--  value  of  shown  by  TuU  in  1733. . .  CI 

—  to  destroy  weeds  and  grass 101 

—  implements  for  surface 102 

Tucker,    .T.    M.,    article    by    upon 

"Acidity  of  Upland  Soils  " 313 

Tull,  .lethro,  observations  upon  till- 
age    ')!),  60 

principles  laid  down  by 39 

recommended    the    Berkshire 

plow 38 

believed  in  horse-hoe  tillage..  U 

showed     value   of    tillage   in 

1733 61 

Tull's  theory  as  to    value  of    till- 
age    61 

Tull,  Jethro,  work  of 38 

I'nderdrains,  necessity  of 72 

—  -  improve  texture  of  soil 61 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  quotation  from  ..286 
Vegetable  matter,  benefits  of  plow- 
ing under 87 

Voelcker.    A.,    test   for   soil    acid- 
ity  314 


PA«K 

Voelcker,  A.,  remarks  by  on  testing 
soils  with  litmus  paper 316 

Water,  percolation  of  through  soils.  73 

Webster,  Daniel,  description  of  plow 
invented  by M 

Weeds,  how  to  clear  ground  of 362 

—  when  to  destroy 101 

—  perennial,  how  eradicaie<l 101 

\Vheat,  nitrogen  removed  by 257 

—  fertility     removed     by    average 

crop 346 

—  crop,  phosphoric  acid  removed  by  22 

—  plant-food  removed  by 28 

used  by 135 

—  amount    of    plant-food    removed 

by 21 

—  winter,  siirface  feeder  in  fall 83 

—  average  yield  for  1890  in  U.  S 20 

Wheeler,    Prof.     H.    .1.,    quotation 

from  on  acid  soils 320 

article  by  upon  "Acidity 

of  Upland  Soils" 313 

Wire-worms,  late  fall  plowing  kills 

many 89 

Witherow,     vSamuel,   improved    the 

moldboard  of  plows 49 

Young,   Arthur,   remarks    on  earlv 

iron  plovT 43 


1/ 


^M 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

de:c  14  ^^4Aa£^ 
Jin  m^fivi. 


/ 


CoBcge 


#^ 


Form  L-9-15mll.'"2' 


liv 


A     001  134  273     o 


:r 


^'^''OKNIA 


LIBRARY 


